FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.

LESSON 83.

533. THE FIGURES OF SPEECH are deviations either from the usual form or spelling of words, from their syntactical construction, or from their proper and literal meaning.

They are divided into 1st, the figures of Orthography; 2nd of Syntax; and 3rd, of Rhetoric.

I.-FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.

534. The figures of Orthography are deviations from the usual form or spelling of words, and consist of Elision, Prosthesis, Paragōge, Synaērēsis, Diaērĕsis, and Tmesis.

535. Elision signifies cutting off a letter or syllable, either at the beginning, middle, or end of a word. Elision thus consists of three kinds, usually denominated Aphaëresis, Syncopě, and Apocopě.

a. Aphaērēsis takes away a letter or syllable from the beginning of a word; as, 'gan for began; 'gainst for against; 'plaint for complaint.

b. Syncopě rejects a letter or syllable from the middle of a word; as, lov'd for loved; se'nnight for sevennight.

c. Apocopě cuts off a letter or syllable from the end; as, th' for the; morn for morning; vale for valley; scant for scanty.

536. Prosthesis adds a letter or syllable to the beginning of a word; as, en-chain, dis-part, for chain, part.

537. Paragōge adds a letter or syllable to the end; as, awaken for awake.

538. Synaērēsis is the contraction of two vowels or of

two syllables into one; as, ae in Israel, ie in alienate, pronounced as if written Is-ral, Al-ye-nate. Two words, also, are frequently contracted into one; as, 'Tis for it is; 't was for it was; we'll for we will.

539. Diaērēsis is the division of one syllable into two, by placing the mark over the latter of two vowels; as, in zoology. This figure very rarely occurs in English.

540. Tmesis separates a compound word, by putting a word between; as, "To God ward," that is, "Toward God."

The preceding figures being almost exclusively confined to Poetry, are seldom admitted into Prose.

II.-FIGURES OF SYNTAX.

541. The figures of Syntax are Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Enăllage, and Hyperbăton.

542. a. Ellipsis is the omission of words necessary to supply the regular or full construction.-See No. 443.

b. When different persons are jointly spoken of, the verb and pronoun agree with the first person rather than with the second, and with the second rather than with the third, by the figure called Syllepsis; thus, I and thou, I and he, are sylleptically the same as we; you and he, the same as ye or you.

c. Apposition signifies the concord existing between two or more nouns under the same regimen; as," William the king."

543. a. Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words; as, "I went home full of a great many serious reflections." Here, the words a great many must be cancelled, as unnecessary. So, "this here," "that there," the words here and there must be omitted.

b. Pleonasm is a fault to be avoided in writing, except in expressions of earnestness of affirmation on an interesting subject, in solemn language, or in poetical description; as, "We have seen with our eyes;' ;""The sea-girt isle."

c. Polysyndeton, or the repetition of a conjunction, is a figure employed when we wish to dwell on each particular; as, "Power, and wisdom, and goodness, shine forth in the works of creation."

d. Periphrasis is the use of several words to denote one object; as, "The juice of the grape," for wine. This figure is frequently necessary to render our meaning distinct.

544. Enăllage is the use of one part of speech for another, and is confined to poetry; as, "Slow rises merit, when by poverty depressed."

545. Hyperbăton is the transposition of words; as, "Come, nymph demure." This figure frequently imparts energy to a sentence, and is very common in poetry.

III.

- FIGURES OF RHETORIC.

LESSONS 84, 85, 86, 87.

546. a. The figures of Rhetoric are deviations from the proper and literal meaning of a word or phrase.

b. A word is said to be used literally, when it is employed to describe any thing according to the ordinary mode of expression; and figuratively, when, though retaining its usual signification, it is applied in a manner different from its common application. Thus, when I use the word pillar as supporting an edifice, I employ it literally; but when speaking of a man, I say, "He is the pillar of the state," I use it figuratively. For though, in the latter example, the word pillar is used in its common signification, to denote that which supports something placed upon it, yet, it is applied to an object different from those to which it is usually applied. Instead of being applied to a solid mass of stone, &c., supporting a material edifice, it is applied to an intelligent being supporting the state.

547. Figurative Language is, in general, the expression of a lively imagination, employing words which, originally, were descriptive of sensible objects only, but which, from an apparent affinity, are equally applicable to mental perceptions. Thus, we speak of a piercing judgment, a clear head, a soft or a hard heart. We also say inflamed by anger; swelled with pride; melted with grief; and these terms are almost the only significant words which we have for such ideas.

548. Figures are frequently divided into figures of Words and Figures of Thought.

Figures of Words are commonly called Tropes. A Trope consists in a word's being employed to signify something that is different from its original and primitive ineaning, so that, if we alter the word, we destroy the figure. Thus, in the sentence, "Light ariseth to the upright in darkness; " the trope consists in "light and darkness" not being meant literally, but substituted for comfort and adversity, on account of some resemblance or analogy which light and darkness are supposed to bear to those conditions of life.

Figures of Thought suppose the words to be used in their proper and literal meaning, and the figure to consist in the turn of the sentiment. They appear in Exclamations, Interrogations, Apostrophes, and Comparisons; in which, were the words varied, or translated from one language into another, yet the same figure in the thought would be preserved. In the following pages, however, we shall consider tropes and figures as synonymous, and treat of them under the same head.

549. THE ADVANTAGES OF FIGures of Speech. First, Figures of Speech enrich a language by rendering it more copious. Secondly, They contribute to dignify our sentiments, particularly in poetry. Thus, to say of soldiers, that "they were

brave and courageous," is to express ourselves simply; the sentiment is much more powerfully conveyed by Heber in the following line-"Their limbs all iron, and their souls all flame."-Thirdly, Figures tend to illustrate a subject or throw light upon it. For, they frequently render an abstract conception, in some degree, an object of sense, by surrounding it with such circumstances as enable the mind to lay hold of it steadily, and contemplate it fully. Fourthly, Figures sometimes contribute in producing conviction, as truth is thus conveyed to the mind in a more lively and forcible manner than it otherwise could be, as in the following example: "A heart boiling with violent passions will always send up infatuating fumes to the head." An image that thus presents so much congruity between a moral and a sensible idea, serves, like an argument from analogy, to enforce what the author asserts, and to induce belief.-Fifthly, Whether we endeavour to raise sentiments of pleasure or aversion, we can always heighten the emotion by the figures which we introduce, by leading the imagination to a train either of agreeable or disagreeable, of exalting or debasing ideas, correspondent to the impression which we seek to make.

550. The following are the principal Figures of Rhetoric : Comparison or Simile, Metaphor, Metonymy, Synecdoche or Comprehension, Personification or Prosopopeia, Apostrophe, Allegory, Antithesis, Allusion, Hyperbole, Irony, Sarcasm, Paralepsis, Interrogation, Exclamation, Vision, Repetition or Climax.

551. a. A SIMILE or FORMAL COMPARISON is the resemblance in some one particular between two objects of different kinds or species. This resemblance is expressed by the words like or as; thus, we can say of a horse, "He is as swift as the wind;" and of a man, "He is as firm as a rock." Here, the resemblance between a horse and the wind is in swiftness; and between a man and a rock in strength.

b. As comparisons must be instituted between objects of different species, it is improper to compare one man with another, one arbour with another, or one army with another, &c. The objects must always be attached to different species; thus, we can properly compare "A hero to a lion,”—“ night to old age,"—"life to an ocean, an army to a torrent." So, we may compare a mighty poet who pours his thoughts in the violence and rapidity of verse to a river swollen with rain hurrying all before it.

c. As Comparisons imply some degree of deliberation, they appear inconsistent with the expression of violent passion. On such occasions, metaphors may, with propriety, be introduced.

552. a. RULE FOR THE APPLICATION OF SIMILES.-A Simile must be striking, natural, and suitable to the subject and the occasion; as, "The music was like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to the soul." Here, the comparison is made not between one kind of music and another, but, between music and the memory of joys that are past. The resemblance is therefore happy and striking, and awakens all the tender sensibilities suggested by the objects of comparison.

b. The preceding rule will exclude all comparisons that are too trite and obvious, too faint and remote, or too

difficult for ordinary apprehension; or which are not suitable either to the subject or the occasion.

c. A due regard must, of course, be had to the class of readers whom we are addressing. What is trite to well-informed persons, may possibly be new to others. And again, a comparison which is quite allowable now, may, in the advance of knowledge, fall under the objection just mentioned. In either case, however, the rule will hold good.

553. A comparison is sometimes introduced purposely to lessen or depress an object. This is effected by associating the principal subjects with something low or despicable; thus Milton compares the fallen angels to a herd of goats;

The overthrown he rais'd, and, as a herd

Of goats or timorous flocks together throng'd,
Drove them before him thunderstruck, pursued
With terrors and with furies to the bounds
And crystal wall of heav'n, which opening wide
Roll'd inward, and a spacious gap disclos'd
Into the wasteful deep.

In

554. a. METAPHOR. A Metaphor is founded on the resemblance which one object bears to another; and differs from a simile only in being expressed in a shorter form (generally in one word), without the signs of comparison like or as; thus, "Thy word is a lamp to my feet." this example, lamp is used metaphorically to affirm that the divine word instructs men in the course of conduct to be pursued, just as a lamp directs them in the dark how to choose their footsteps.

b. When I say, "Man is like a wolf to man," I use a simile; but when I say, "Man is a wolf," I employ a metaphor. When a writer, therefore, designates "man as a wolf, he must describe only such of the qualities and appearances of the wolf as are suitable to his subject. Caution is necessary to know at what point the resemblance ceases. Thus, were he to say, "Man is a wolf to man, that murders and devours his fellows," he would be extending the metaphor too far. A wolf may be said "te kill and devour,” but, not to murder his fellows.

555. There are four sources of Metaphors:

1st. When the resemblance lies between Rational and Irrational animals; thus, "Our Saviour is styled the lamb of God," "Cicero styles Piso the vulture of the province."

2nd. When the resemblance lies between Rational Beings and Inanimate objects; thus "Jesus is frequently