If, in reasoning, is followed by then; as, "If this point is established, then it

Because-therefore; as,

naturally follows," &c. "Because he has proved the victor, he ought therefore to be rewarded."

b. The word or is used sometimes to point out a difference between things, at other times only between names for the same thing. When the first noun is preceded by either, a difference between the things is indicated. When either is not inserted, the same difference may be pointed out by a repetition of the article, or of the article and preposition before each noun; but when several terms refer to the same thing, the article and preposition are not repeated, only the conjunction or being inserted before the last, thus, "That figure is a sphere, or a globe, or a ball," is incorrect; it should be, "is a sphere, globe, or ball," because they are not different things, but different terms for the same thing. The expression, "He put the money in a bag, or in a box," or, "in a bag or a box," implies two distinct things, a bag and a box. The sentence, "The king, whose character was not sufficiently vigorous nor decisive, assented to the measure," is not quite correct. If the word decisive is used as merely explanatory of the word vigorous, or as synonymous with it, then we ought to say, "vigorous or decisive ;" but if the two terms are intended to designate two distinct things, we should use nor and its corresponding conjunction neither, thus, "The king, whose character was neither sufficiently vigorous nor decisive.'

440. a. Conjunctions that do not correspond should never be connected with the same noun or pronoun, as the meaning of the sentence is thus rendered imperfect. "Will it be believed that the four Gospels are as old, or even older, than tradition?" should be, "Will it be believed, that the four Gospels are older than tradition, or even as old?"

b. In the preceding sentence, the phrase, as old, exhibits the first branch of a comparison, and requires to be followed by a corresponding clause. —“The relations are so uncertain, as that they require a great deal of examination;" it should be, "that they require a great deal of examination," because a consequence is denoted. "There was no man so sanguine who did not apprehend some ill consequences;" it ought to be," as not to apprehend;"-we may also say, "There was no man, how sanguine soever, or however sanguine, who did not apprehend." "We should sufficiently weigh the objects of our hope, whether they are such as we may reasonably expect from them what they propose," should be, "such that we may reasonably expect."

C. THE FOLLOWING ARE VIOLATIONS OF SINGLE CONJUNCTIONS.-"Scarcely had the spirit of laws made its appearance, than it was attacked;" should be," when it was attacked." "The duke had not behaved with that loyalty as he ought to have done," should be," with which he ought to have behaved." "In the order as they lie in his preface," should be, "In the order in which they lie," &c. "His donation was the more acceptable, that it was given without solicitation," should be, “because or as it was given without solicitation." "He had too much grace and wit than to be a member of that club;" than is superfluous; it should be," He had too much grace and wit to be a member of that club."

441. Neither, nor, and either, or, should be placed near the words to which they refer; as, "Neither he nor his riend was present;" "It neither improves the understanding, nor delights the imagination."

442. Than and as do not govern any case; thus,

"Wiser than I," that is, "than I am." "As good as she," that is, 66 as she is." See 372.

INTERJECTIONS.

For the government of Interjections, see Rule 9, No. 373.

RULE 20. ELLIPSIS.

LESSON 73.

443. a. As a general rule, convey your ideas in as few words as possible, provided your meaning is rendered full and distinct. The omission of unnecessary words is usually called Ellipsis. Thus, instead of saying, "Reading makes a knowing man, study makes a judicious man, and conversation makes a polished man ;" we may avoid repeating the word makes, and say, "Reading makes a knowing man, study, a judicious man, and conversation, a polished man.'

b. An ellipsis is not allowable, when the employment of it would occasion obscurity, weaken the force of the sentence, or render it ungrammatical; thus, "We are apt to love who love us," should be, "We are apt to love them who love us."

444. ILLUSTRATION. In almost all sentences, and particularly in compound sentences, an ellipsis of some of the parts of speech frequently occurs, as may be seen from the following examples:

a. Of the Article. "The sun and moon;" here, the repetition of the article is unnecessary. But the following sentence, being intended to be emphatical, requires the article to be repeated; as, "Not only the year, but the day and the hour." The article is also generally repeated when one word begins with a consonant, and the other with a vowel; as, "A garden and an orchard."

b. Of the Noun. "One sun by day, by night ten thousand shine;" here, the repetition of the word sun is unnecessary. In emphatical sentences, the noun, as well as the other parts of speech, must be repeated. Nouns, connected with adjectives of dimension or measure, have generally some words understood; as," A wall seven feet high;" that is, "A wall which is seven feet high.'

c. Of the Adjective. "A little man and woman; " that is, "A little man and a little woman.' In expressions of this kind, the adjective must have exactly the same signification, and be quite as proper when joined to the latter substantive as to the former; otherwise, the ellipsis should not be used. The same adjective should not be applied to two nouns of different numbers; thus, "A magnificent house and gardens," would be better, if written, " A magnificent house and fine gardens."

d. Of the Pronoun. "In the posture I lay;" here, the pronoun is improperly omitted; it should be, "In the posture in which I lay." "We speak that we do know," ought to be, "We speak that which we do know;" or, "what we know." e. Of the Verb. "She was young, and beautiful, and good;" that is," She was young, she was beautiful, and she was good." If we wish to point out one property above the rest, that property must be placed the last, and the ellipsis supplied; as, "She is young and beautiful, and she is good."

Do, did, have, had, shall, will, may, might, and the rest of the auxiliaries of the compound tenses, are frequently used alone, to avoid the repetition of the principal verb; as, "I have studied my lesson, but you have not ;" that is, "but you have not studied it."

When several different verbs are in the same mood and tense, we sometimes avoid repeating the auxiliary that has been prefixed to the first verb; as, "I have seen and heard him frequently;" that is, "I have seen and I have heard him frequently." But when any thing is emphatically expressed, or when opposition is denoted, the auxiliary verb must be repeated; as, "I have seen and I have heard

him too."

f. Of the Adverb. "He spoke and acted prudently;" that is, " He spoke prudently, and he acted prudently."

g. Of the Preposition. "He was banished (from) the kingdom."

h. Of the Conjunction.

""Tis not enough (that) taste, judgment, learning, join;
In all you speak, let truth and candour shine.'

i. Of the Interjection. The ellipsis of the interjection takes place, when the nouns refer to the same person or thing; as, "Oh! my brother, my friend!" But, when the nouns refer to different persons or things, the interjection must be repeated; as, " Oh liberty! Oh my country!'

j. Sometimes a whole phrase is omitted; as, "Solomon introduces different speakers into his book of Ecclesiastes, without distinctly naming them; as, the fool, the philosopher, the epicure, and the preacher, which (introduction of different speakers) accounts for the apparent dissonance of sentiments in that book." The following phrases are also elliptical:

"Wo is me!" that is, "Wo is to me!" "To let blood;" that is, "To let out blood."

445. a. In the Syntactical Formation of sentences, regard must be had to the strict observance of the rules of concord, government, arrangement, and connection of the words and clauses, to the uniform and dependent construction of each sentence throughout, -and to the adaptation of the words to the ideas intended; thus, "His accusations were strength against him;" here the word accusations should be modified by an adjective; we should therefore say, "strong against him.”- "If I can contribute to your and my country's glory." This sentence is ambiguous, and admits of two modes of correction; -1st. "If I can contribute to our country's glory;" or, 2ndly. "If I can contribute to your glory and to that of my country."

b. For directions on the choice of appropriate words, the student is referred to Perspicuity,

VIOLATIONS OF THE RULE."The Court of Chancery frequently mitigates and breaks the teeth of the common law; "to mitigate the teeth of the common law is evidently improper; the sentence should be,The Court of Chancery frequently mitigates the common law, and breaks the teeth of it."

crown;

They presently grow into good humour, and good language towards the we may grow into good humour, but we cannot be said to grow into good language. The sentence should be," They presently grow into good humour, and begin to use good language towards the crown."

"How much soever the reformation of this degenerate age is almost utterly to be despaired of, we may yet have a more comfortable prospect of future times." The sentence should be thus constructed, "Though the reformation of this degenerate age is nearly to be despaired of," &c.

"Oh! shut not up my soul with sinners, nor my life with the blood-thirsty; in whose hands is wickedness, and their right hand is full of gifts." As the passage introduced by the conjunction and, was not intended as a continuation of the principal and independent part of the sentence, but of the dependent part, the relative whose should have been used instead of the pronoun their; namely," and whose right hand is full of gifts."

"We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those images which we have once received, into all the varieties of picture and vision." It is proper to say, "altering and compounding those images which we have once received, into all the varieties of picture and vision:" but we cannot say, "retaining them into all the varieties." The sentence should be, "We have the power of retaining those images which we have once received, and of altering and compounding them into all the varieties of picture and vision;" or thus," We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding those images which we have once received, and of forming them into all the varieties of picture and vision."

"Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared for them that love him." In this sentence, the same noun is considered both in the nominative and the objective cases. It would be better constructed thus" Eye hath not seen, nor hath ear heard, neither hath it entered into the heart of man, to conceive the things," &c.