1

Immortality.

continued life; and hence they built vast tombs, and embalmed their bodies, as if to last forever. In the Zoroastrian religion the future world, with its governing spirits, plays a prominent part. Under Ormuz and Ahriman there are ranged regular hierarchies of spirits engaged in a perpetual conflict; and the soul passes into the kingdom of light or of darkness, over which these spirits respectively preside, according as it has lived on the earth well or ill. Whoever has lived in purity, and has not suffered the divs (evil spirits) to have any power over him, passes after death into the realms of light. In the early Grecian paganism hades, or the realms of the dead, is the emblem of gloom to the Hellenic imagination. "Achilles, the ideal hero, declares that he would rather till the ground than live in pale elysium.” This melancholy view of the future everywhere pervades the Homeric religion. With the progress of Hellenic thought a higher idea of the future is found to characterize both the poetry and philosophy of Greece, till, in the Platonic Socrates, the conception of immortality shines forth with a clearness and precision truly impressive. In the Apology and the Phado Socrates discourses of the doctrine of the soul's immortality, in language at once rich in faith and in beauty. "The soul, the immaterial part, being of a nature so superior to the body, can it," he asks in the Phado, "as soon as it is separated from the body, be dispersed into nothing, and perish? Oh, far otherwise. Rather will this be the result. If it take its departure in a state of purity, not carrying with it any clinging impurities of the body, impurities which during life it never willingly shared in, but always avoided, gathering itself into itself, and making the separation from the body its aim and study that is, devoting itself to true philosophy, and studying how to die calmly; for this is true philosophy, is it not?-well, then, so prepared, the soul departs into that invisible region which is of its own nature, the region of the divine, the immortal, the wise, and then its lot is to be happy in a state in which it is freed from fears and wild desires, and the other evils of humanity, and spends the rest of its existence with the gods."

66

It is only in Christianity, however, that this higher life is clearly revealed as a reward not merely to the true philosopher, but to every humble and pious soul. Christ "hath brought life and immortality to light by the gospel." According to his abundant mercy, God hath begotten us again unto a lively hope by the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead, to an inheritance incorruptible and undefiled, and that fadeth not away, reserved in heaven." It is undoubtedly owing to Christianity that the doctrine of the soul's immortality has become a common and well-recognized truth-no mere result of speculation, nor product of priestly invention-but a light to the reason, and a guide to the conscience and conduct. The aspirations of philosophy, and the conceptions of mythology, are found in the gospel transmuted into an authoritative influence, governing and directing the present life.

IMMORTALITY, ante. I. Arguments for the fact. 1. As matter does not cease to exist when it changes its form, so man's spiritual substance at least will not be annihilated when it changes its state: this argument, though not proving personal immortality, prepares the way for its proof. 2. The spirit, as in its nature, distinct from matter, willwe must suppose in lack of proof to the contrary-continue its existence; there is no proof that man's spirit dies; all that is known to die is his body; we must therefore believe his spiritual life to continue. 3. The mental powers, being capable of a development which cannot be reached in this life, must find in the future that unlimited sphere of exertion for which they have wisely been adapted. 4. The wisdom of God will complete what it has begun; his goodness will satisfy the longings of man's spiritual nature; `his justice will bring to an end the present disorders of the moral world. 5. Our moral nature prompts the expectation that virtue and right will be rewarded, and vice and wrong punished or repressed in another world, as they are not fully in this. 6. In the history of mankind there has been a general belief in future rewards and punishments. In the Veda of the Hindus, Müller says: "The immortality of the soul, as well as personal responsibility after death, is clearly proclaimed." This statement prof. Roth confirms, saying: "We find in the Veda, not without astonishment, beautiful conceptions on immortality expressed in unadorned language with child-like conviction." The Chinese show their belief in immortality by worshiping their ancestors. When a man dies, they say he has returned to his family. Confucius taught that the spirits of the good are allowed to revisit their earthly habitations to receive homage and to bestow blessing. The Egyptians believed in a dwelling place of the dead and a future judg ment. "Osiris judges the dead, and having weighed their heart in the scales of justice, sends the wicked into darkness and the just to the god of light." According to Persian belief, man passed to a future of reward or penalty. Some tribes of South American Indians believe that there are two great powers of good and evil and a number of inferior deities who have been the creators of different families; and that when an Indian dies his soul goes to live with the deity who controls his particular family. Another American tribe "expect, when they die, to return to the original seat of their forefathers; the good reaching it by means of the intervening lake, which the wicked, burdened with their sins, cannot cross. The Choctaws are said to "hold that the spirit lives after death and must travel a great distance towards the west, and across a dreadful, deep, and rapid stream upon a long and slippery log. The good pass it safely, but the wicked slip and fall." The native tribes of Australia believe that all good men,

Impenetrability.

who are properly buried, at their death enter heaven, which, they say, is "a delightful place, the abode of two good divinities with an abundance of food, a pleasant climate, freedom from evil spirits, and pleasures suited to their tastes. They believe also in an evil spirit, who dwells in the nethermost regions." "The Greenlander believes that at death the soul travels to a land of perpetual summer, all sunshine and no night. But the journey is difficult and attended with many perils, in some of which the soul, suffering another death may perish utterly, to exist no more. Several nations in Java and America have, it is said, the idea of a perilous bridge which has to be crossed at death; while in Polynesia some think the soul, instead of crossing a bridge, must pass over a great gulf in a canoe. Among the more cultivated ancient nations nobler ideas of immortality were sometimes cherished. Homer represents Achilles as convinced of the existence of souls after death by the appearance to him of the dead Patroclus in a dream. Plato describes Socrates as arguing and declaring the sure immortality of the spirits of good men, and, it would seem, of all men-though only the pure could be happy. The Old Testament Scriptures undeniably refer to the fact of a future life, though they give only an incomplete revelation concerning it. Of Enoch they say, "He was not, for God took him." Abraham, they say, "died and was gathered to his fathers," referring, not to his burial, for he was not buried near their graves, but to his entrance into the future state. So Jacob was gathered to his people when he died, though his burial was delayed many days. So Aaron was gathered to his people, though he was buried on Mount Hor; and Moses also, though no man knew of his sepulcher. Abraham, with other Old Testament believers, desired a heavenly country and "looked for the city which hath the foundations." David said, "I shall be satisfied when I awake with thy likeness." 7. Christ and the New Testament bring life and immortality to light, certifying what had been doubtful and dim. Christ stands as the supreme and final witness to

the fact.

II. Its nature and extent. Of its nature we know little, since reason has not the materials for a science of immortality, and revelation is silent except as concerns the moral and practical bearings of the great fact which it affirms with intense energy. What is known through reason or revelation on this theme may be summed up as follows: 1. There is a life for man after the death of the flesh, which life is spiritual, in a spiritual body, amid spiritual surroundings. 2. This life is in the completed likeness of the life of Christ, who is the Son of God and the Head of humanity; therefore a life of blessing, beauty, and glory, of wisdom, power, and holy love-imperishable, incorruptible, eternal: to it pertain consciousness, identity, and a complete moral and spiritual personality. 3. This immortality is naturally possible to every individual person of the human race; being provided and secured in the very creation of the human race in and through the Son of God as the archetype of humanity, so that through him all men are constituted by their nature sons of God. 4. This immortality, naturally possible, becomes actual in the case of every human person who does not through willful love of evil refuse the eternal life of purity, holiness, and love: thence it becomes actual through Christ in the case of any heathen who sincerely and faithfully seek after God and goodness in the use of such light as they have: thence also it may be considered as applying to infants devoid of willful and personal wickedness. 5. This life, naturally possible to all men, does never become actual in the case of any who willfully refuse the light, and so reject the life. 6. These are not presented in the Bible as having immortality, or as entering into the eternal life, since immortality means deathlessness, and they are presented as under the power of death; yet to assert that they have no continued or future existence of any kind is to assert what no man knows or can prove: on the contrary, their future existence, certainly for a time, is indicated; and its everlasting continuance cannot, to say the least, be disproved. Thus, in fine, immortality, or the eternal life of a human spirit joined to the life of God, our thought can take firm hold upon; it is positive, radiant, unquestionable; while as to the eternal death, it is an outer darkness" with no firm foothold for our thought as to its nature or its scenes. Upon these points, therefore, it is wise to restrict dogmatic assertion. Sec ESCHATOLOGY.

IMMORTELLÉS. See EVERLASTING FLOWER.

I'MOLA (anc. Forum Cornelii, or Forum Syllæ), a t. of Italy, in the province of Bologna, stands in a fruitful plain adjoining picturesque hills, close to the river Santerno, and 24 m. w.s. w. of Ravenna. It contains some fine palaces, churches, theaters, and benevolent institutions. Imola possesses some good manufactures of wax, oil, majolica, silk, and glass, besides extensive leather-curing establishments, and brick and tile works. From a species of white grape grown in the vicinity the delicious wine known as vin santo is manufactured. Pop. '81, 19,275.

IMOS CHI, a t. of the Austrian empire, in Dalmatia, in n. lat. 43° 30', e long. 17° 15'. It has markets twice a week, which are much frequented by Turks. Pop. (probably including a district), 24,000.

IMPALE, in heraldry, to arrange two coats of arms side by side in one shield divided per pale. It is usual thus to exhibit the conjoined coats of husband and wife, the husband's arms occupying the dexter side or place of honor, and the wife's the sinister

Impenetrability.

side of the escutcheon. When a man marries a second wife, heralds say that he may divide the sinister half of the shield per fess into two compartments, placing the family arms of his deceased wife in chief, and of his second wife in base. A husband impaling his wife's coat with his own is not allowed to surround the former with the collar or insignia of any order of knighthood to which he may belong. Bishops, deans, heads of colleges, and kings-of-arms, impale their arms with their insignia of office, giving the dexter side to the former. In early heraldry, when two coats were represented i one shield side by side, only half of each was exhibited, an arrangement which ha been called dimidiation. Sometimes the one coat only was dimidiated. A reminis cence of dimidiation is preserved in the practice of omitting bordures, orles, and treg sures in impaled arms on the side bounded by the line of impalement.

IMPANATION (Lat. in, and panis, bread), a technical word employed in the eucha ristic controversies to express the peculiar opinion propounded by Luther as to the nature of the presence of Christ in the eucharist. Differing from the Roman Catholics in denying the transubstantiation of the bread and wine, and from the sacramentarians in denying that our Lord's presence was merely typical or figurative, Luther contended that the body and blood of Christ were present in, or along with, the elements of bread and wine; in a manner analogous to that in which the divinity of Christ co-exists in the same person with his human nature. Hence, by an analogy with the word incarnation, he devised for the eucharistic union the term impanation. This doctrine was the subject of a lengthened controversy with Zwingli at Marburg in 1529, which left each party unconvinced. The word IMPANATIO, signifying the same thing, was first used by Alger of Liège (d. 1131), the author of a work defending transubstantiation.

IMPEACHMENT, the name given to an accusation and trial of a peer or member of parliament, or, indeed, any other person, before the high court of parliament, for treason, or some high crime or misdemeanor. This is a kind of trial which is reserved for great and enormous offenders, particularly in matters affecting the constitution, for the ordinary tribunals generally suffice for all cases of crimes. Impeachment, accordingly, is of rare occurrence, the last instance being that of lord Melville in 1805; but as it is one of the high prerogatives of parliament to try offenders in this way, it is still competent to use it. The proceedings nearly resemble an ordinary trial at law. A pardon by the crown is not pleadable in bar of the prosecution, though, after sentence, the crown may pardon the offender. See May, On Parliaments.

IMPEACHMENT (ante). By the constitution of the United States, art. 1, sec. 4, the president, vice-president, and all civil officers of the nation, are made liable to removal from office on impeachment for and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. The house of representatives has the sole power to initiate proceedings in cases of impeachment. When that body has impeached an officer it becomes the sole duty of the senate to try the case as thus presented, and when sitting for that purpose the members must be on oath or affirmation. When the president of the United States is tried the chief-justice must preside, and no person can be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. Judgment in cases of impeachment extends no further than removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjcy any office of honor, trust, or profit, under the United States; but the party convicted is liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. The chief trials for impeachment have been those of judge Chase in 1804, judge Peck in 1831, judge Humphreys in 1862, and president Johnson in 1868. Proceedings on impeachment under the state constitutions are somewhat similar. A witness giving testimony in a court of law is said to be impeached when he is proved to be unworthy of credit.

IMPEACHMENT OF WASTE, an expression in English law, used in deeds or wills. When an estate is given to a person for life, or for a term of years, without impeachment of waste, the tenant is entitled to cut timber, and do many things on the estate which otherwise he would be unable to do. Still, he is not allowed to do what he likes, for if he abuses his power, and attempts to cut down ornamental timber, for example, or deface the family mansion, the court of chancery will interfere by injunction to prevent this. The phrase is not used in Scotland, but the law is not materially different.

IMPENNATES, a name which has been applied to a tribe of swimming birds with very short and small wings, upon which there are only rudimentary feathers or scaly skin. The penguin and the great auk are examples. These birds are usually embraced in the family brevipennata, which includes penguins, auks, guillemots, divers or loons, and grebes. They belong to the order natatores. See PENGUIN, AUK, DIVER, GREBE and GUILLEMOT.

IMPENETRABILITY, one of the essential properties of matter, implies that no two bodies can at the same time occupy the same space. If a nail be driven into a piece of wood it does not, properly speaking, penetrate the wood, for the fibers are driven aside before the nail can enter. If a vessel be filled with fluid, and a solid body be then placed in it, as much water will run over as is equal in bulk to the solid body, in

Imports.

this way making room for it. The lightest gases are really as impenetrable as the densest solid; although, owing to their compressibility, it is not readily made apparent.

IMPERATIVE, CATEGORICAL. According to Kant (q.v.), man, in the consciousness of his moral liberty, recognizes two great laws regulating his will; the first prompts him to seek his own well-being, the second commands him to be virtuous, even at the sacrifice of that. From this opposition in his moral nature between desire and conscience, springs up the idea of duty, which, in the Kantian terminology, is called the "moral imperative," to which Kant adds the epithet categorical, to indicate that its commands are absolute and unconditional.

IMPERATOR. See EMPEROR.

IMPERIAL CROWN properly signifies the crown borne by the German emperor; in form, a circle of gold, adorned with precious stones and fleurs-de-lis, bordered and seeded with pearls, and raised in the form of a cap voided at the top like a crescent. From the middle of the cap rises an arched fillet enriched with pearls, and surmounted by a globe, on which is a cross of pearls. The name imperial crown is, however, in English heraldry, applied to the crown worn in times past by the kings of England. From the 12th c. onwards the crown of the English sovereigns underwent repeated changes in form and enrichment. That of Edward II. was formed of four large and four small strawberry leaves, rising in curves from the jeweled circlet, and having eight small flowers alternating with the leaves. In Henry IV.'s crown eight strawberry leaves, and as many fleurs-de-lis alternated with 16 small groups of pearls, three in each. Under Henry V. the enriched circlet was for the first time arched over with jeweled bands of gold, and the apex of the arches surmounted with a mound and cross, while crosses patées were substituted for the strawberry leaves, and roses or fleurs-de-lis for the clusters of pearls. The arches, at first numerous and elevated to a point, became, in later times, restricted to four, and depressed in the center. The imperial crown of heraldry, as now understood, is, in point of fact, the form of crown worn by the English sovereigns from Charles II. to William IV. It has four crosses patées and four fleurs-de-lis set alternately on the circlet, while four pearl-studded arches, rising from within the crosses, carry at their intersection the mound and cross. The state crown of queen Victoria differs considerably from this, having a far more enriched character. It is covered with diamonds and studded with gems, and the arches are wrought into wreaths of rose, thistle, and shamrock formed of brilliants. A charge, crest, or supporter, crowned with a regal crown, is said to be imperially crowned.

IMPERIUM is a word used in the Roman law in various senses, the most important of which is that which it bears when applied to consuls and proconsuls-thence called imperators. Most of the superior magistrates were also intrusted with the imperium, which meant a sovereign authority. It is of very little practical importance in modern times to trace the extent or precise nature of the authority thus designated, as the subject has no bearing on modern law.

IMPERTINENCE, in English law, means some irrelevant matter introduced in an affidavit or pleading; and the court will generally order it to be struck out, and the offending party to pay the costs of doing so.

IMPETIGO, a disease of the skin. It consists of crops of pustules, which may either be scattered or collected in groups. These pustules burst, dry up, and become covered with scabs or crusts of a yellow color, not unlike little masses of candied honey. From beneath these crusts, a purulent discharge commonly takes place; the crusts become thicker and larger, and the skin around and beneath them is red and raw. The disease may be either acute or chronic. In the former case, it is attended with febrile symptoms, which must be combated by the internal administration of purgatives and alkalies, strict attention to diet, and weak alkaline lotions. In chronic cases the discharge may be checked by a lotion containing 10 or 15 grains of oxide of zinc in an ounce of rose-water. There are various forms of this complaint, as 1. figurata, I. sparsa, etc. The disease known as crustea lactea, which sometimes covers the faces of children like a mask, is a sort of compound of impetigo and eczema; and the rose-water lotion already mentioned is a useful application for it.

IMPEYAN, or IMPEYAN PHEASANT, Lophophorus Impeyanus, a large gallinaceous bird of the family phasianida, a native of high cold regions of the Himalayas, but remarkable as much as any tropical bird for the splendor of its plumage, enhanced by the changing metallic tints which it exhibits-green, steel-blue, violet, and golden bronze. The fine plumage, however, belongs to the male alone. The female is clothed in sober brown, mottled with gray and yellow, and is smaller than the male. The impeyan has been found capable of domestication, and may probably be found capable of naturalization, in Britain. It derives its name from lady Impey, who first attempted to bring it alive to Britain, but failed. The Nepaulese name, monaul, signifies bird of gold.

IMPLEMENT, in Scotch law, means fulfillment of a contract or decree of the court.

Imports.

IMPLEMENTS, AGRICULTURAL. Under this term are generally comprehended not only the implements used in the actual cultivation of the soil, but those requisite for other operations of farming, and for the preparation of the produce of the land for use, in so far as it is ordinarily carried on by the farmer. The first implements for the cultivation of the ground were doubtless such as could be used by man's unaided strength, and many such are still in use, as the spade, the hoe, the fork, and the shovel. When animals were reduced to the service of man the plow appeared in its first rude form. Grubbers, cultivators, etc., are recent inventions; rollers are more ancient. Sowing machines or drills are modern, but the harrow is ancient, although branches of trees drawn along the newly sown land, long served the purpose of its now carefully adjusted tines.-The necessity of irrigation in some countries early led to expedients and implements for accomplishing it. Implements for clearing the ground of weeds, for occasional stirring of the ground whilst under crop, and for earthing up crops, are all, except the hoe, of comparatively recent invention. The scythe and sickle have existed from remote antiquity, although the reaping-machine is a novelty only beginning to assume a very important place. Wheel-carriages of various descriptions and for various purposes must be mentioned among agricultural implements; also implements for thrashing and winnowing corn, for scutching and breaking flax, for ginning cotton, for crushing sugar-cane and evaporating its juice, etc. The preparation of the produce of different plants requires implements of different kinds. Others are required in the care of cattle, and for the dairy (q.v.). The principal agricultural implements are noticed in separate articles, and some in connection with particular kinds of cultivated plants.

IMPLU'VIUM, a tank or cistern in the center of the hall or atrium (q.v.) of a Roman house. In the examples which remain at Pompeii the impluvium is generally formed of marble. It is placed immediately under the unroofed part of the atrium, and is intended to receive the rain which runs down from the roof through the opening. The impluvium was frequently adorned with fountains, and formed a very peculiar and interesting feature in the dwellings of the Romans.

IMPONDERABLE SUBSTANCES, an epithet applied to light, heat, electricity, and magnetism, at a time when they were universally considered as matter, in contradistinction to those substances which possessed sensible weight. See HEAT.

IMPOON, Antilope or Cephalopus mergens, a small species of antelope, very plentiful in South Africa, in wooded districts. It is about 21 in. high at the shoulder, of a brownishyellow color, with white belly. The horns are short and conical, set far back, and inclined backwards. It lives solitary or in pairs. From its habit of plunging amongst bushes when pursued, standing on its hind legs at intervals to observe its pursuers, and disappearing again, the impoon is called duyker-bok (diver-buck) by the Dutch colonists of South Africa, among whom its flesh is in great esteem.

IMPORTS AND EXPORTS of foreign nations. The following table presents the lat est statistics obtainable in regard to the I. and E. of the principal nations of the world: