ably follow her example. In such cases, a decided order that the next girl who is attacked shall be treated with the actual cautery, or even with the cold affusion, will often have a marvelous effect in checking the spread of the disorder.

During the fit, the treatment to be adopted is to prevent the patient from injuring herself, to loosen her dress, and to admit an abundance of fresh cool air; to dash cold water upon the face and chest; and, if she can swallow, to administer a couple of ounces of the asafoetida mixture, or a drachm of the ammoniated tincture of valerian in a wineglass of water. After the paroxysm is over, the patient should have an active purge, and the bowels should be kept properly open by aloetic aperients; and the shower-bath, preparations of iron, and tonic treatment generally should be adopted, and all abnormal : bodily and mental excitement, such as late parties in hot rooms, novel-reading etc., carefully avoided.

HYSTEROTOMY. See CÆSAREAN OPERATION.

HYSTRIX AND HYSTRI CIDE. See PORCUPINE.

HYTHE (A.-S. haven), a parliamentary and municipal borough and market-t: of England, and one of the Cinque ports (q.v.), in the county of Kent, 14 m. s. of Canterbury, and about half a m. from the coast of the English channel, at the e. end of Romney Marsh. Lympne or Limne (the portus lemanis of the Romans), the ancient castle and harbor, about 2 m. w. of Hythe, is now about two m. from the coast, the sea having gradually retired, first, to w. Hythe, and then to the present haven, which is still silting up. The town stands chiefly at the foot of a cliff, and consists of one main street, running parallel to the sea, with smaller ones branching off. It has an interesting church, partly Norman and partly early English. Under the chancel of the church is an extraordinary collection of human skulls and bones-many of the skulls having deep cuts in them the age and origin of which are altogether uncertain. Hythe is now a place of great resort in the bathing season. The parliamentary borough of Hythe includes Folkstone, Sandgate, and some smaller places. Pop. of municipal borough, which includes w. Hythe, '81, 4,069. Hythe is about a m. from the Folkstone and Dover railway. HYTHE SCHOOL OF MUSKETRY. See MUSKETRY, SCHOOL OF.

HYTÚ, or ITÚ, a t. in the province of San Paulo, Brazil; pop. 10,000. It is in a ferile region on the Feite river, and has a large trade in mules.

I,

I

THE ninth letter in the alphabets of western Europe, was called by the Greeks Iota, after its Shemitic name (Heb. Jod), which signifies "hand." The oldest forms of the letter, as seen in the Phenecian and Samaritan, have a rude resemblance to a hand with three fingers; but by gradual simplification, the character came to be the smallest in the alphabet, and "iota" or "jot" is a synonym for a trifle. The original sound of the letter, and that which is considered its proper sound in all languages except English, is that given to Eng. e in me; with this power, it forms one of the fundamental vowels i, a, u (see A and LETTERS). What is called the long sound of iin Eng. is really the diphthong ai rapidly pronounced. The power that the vowel i, followed by another vowel, has of turning the preceding consonant into a sibilant, has been noticed in regard to the letter C (q.v.); further instances may be seen in such French words as rage, singe, from Lat. rabies, simia. In Lat. there was but one character for the vowel i and the semi-vowel now denoted by the character j. See J.

IABA'DIUS, a name given by Ptolemy to an immense island of the East Indies near Malacca. It abounded in grain and gold. It is thought by most investigators to be Java.

IAL'YSUS, an important Doric city of the island of Rhodes, very flourishing in the time of Homer, remains of whose former greatness are still found in the village of Ialisco. Of its origin nothing is known.

IAMBIC VERSE, a term applied in classic prosody, and sometimes in English, to verses consisting of the foot or meter called iambus, consisting of two syllables, of which the first is short, and the second long (~-). Archilochus (q.v.) is the reputed inventor of iambic verse. The English language runs more easily and naturally in this meter than in any other. See METER, VERSE.

IAM BLICHUS, the proper name of several persons in classical antiquity, as-1. A king of Emesa, who, in the civil war, took the part of Antony.-2. A Syrian freedman, who flourished at the end of the reign of Trajan and beginning of that of M. Aurelius (117-69 A.D.). He was instructed by a Babylonian in the language, manners, and literature of Babylon, and wrote the Babylonica, or loves of Rhodanes and Sinonis, in 16 or 39 books, which has been preserved by Photius, c. xciv., and Leo Allatius. It is

the oldest of the novels of antiquity which has reached the present day; but is not of any great merit either as to style or plot.-3. A philosopher who flourished under Constantine about 310 A.D., boru of an illustrious and wealthy family at Chalcis, in ColeSyria, pupil of Anatolius and Porphyry, and of the Neo-Platonic school of Plotinus, whose doctrines he extended. Little is known of his life; but he was followed by a numerous school, who listened with enthusiasm and respect, and who thought that he was inspired, had intercourse with the gods, and could divine and perform miracles. This gave him immense credit. His doctrines were a syncretic mixture of Pythagorean and Platonic ideas, mixed with superstition and magic, and the supposed manifestation of God by ecstasies, and a communication with the spiritual world by ceremonies. One of his great works: On the Choice of Pythagoras (Peri Airescos Pythagorou) consisted of 10 books, of which there remains the 1st, A Life of Pythagoras, filled with prodigies, and evidently written against Christianity. 2d, An Exhortation to Philosophy (Protreptikoi Logoi eis Philosophian), an ill-arranged introduction to Plato. 3d. On the Common Knowledge of Mathematics (Peri Koines Mathematikes Epistemes), full of fragments of Pythagoras, Philolaus, and Archytas. 4th, On the Arithmetical Introduction of Nicomachus. The 5th and 6th books are lost. The 7th, The Theology of Arithmetic (Ta Theologoumena tes Arithmetikes); the 8th, The History of Music; the 9th, Geometry; the 10th, On the Study of Heavenly Bodies. He also wrote a work on the Soul, commentaries on Plato and Aristotle, another on the complete Chaldean philosophy, another on Beginnings, and one on Sacred images, in which he affirmed that the gods resided in their statues. His celebrated work on the Mysteries (Peri Musterión) is, however, disputed; it is supposed by Meiners not to be written by Iamblichus; but is asserted by Tennemann to be the work of this author. It is drawn up as the answer of Abammon, a priest, to a letter addressed to his pupil, Anebo, by Porphyry. It contains many Egyptian doctrines, and esoterical explanations derived from the Hermetic books, the writings of Bitys and others, mixed with Pythagorean and Neo-Platonic ideas. The style of Iamblichus is not careful, and is inferior to Porphyry. Iamblichus is supposed to have died at Alexandria, 333 A.D.-Several other writers of this name are known, as a younger philosopher of the Neo Platonic school, born at Apamea, and supposed to be a nephew of the preceding, praised by Libanius to Julian the apostate; another, son of Himerius, mentioned by the same author, and a physician at Constantinople.

Eudocia, Violetum, p. 244; Eunapius, Vit. Philosoph., p. 20; Hebensbreit, De Iamblicho (Leip. 1744); Brucker, Hist. Crit. Phil., ii. p. 260; Tamblichus, a Gale, for (Ox. 1678).

IAN'THINA. See JANTHINA.

IAP'ETUS, supposed by some to be the Japhet of the Bible. The Greek and Roman mythology considered him as the father of the human race. In classic mythology he is the son of Cœlus and Terra, and father of Atlas, Prometheus, and Epimetheus.

IBAR'RA, or SAN MIGUEL DE IBARRA, a t. of Ecuador, South America, in the department of Quito, and 60 m. n.e. of the t. of that name. It is situated on the northern base of the volcano of Imbabura, is well built, and carries on manufactures of wool and cotton. Pop. estimated at about 10,000.

IBE'RIA, a parish of Louisiana, lying on the gulf of Mexico, and intersected by Bayou Teche; 600 sq.m.; pop. '80, 6,676. Soil, fertile; surface, low and level; staple products: cotton, maize, and sugar-cane. There are forests of cypress and live-oak and beds of rock-salt. Cap., New Iberia.

IBE'RIA. See HISPANIA and GEORGIA.

IBE'RIS. See CANDYTUFT.

IBERVILLE, a parish of Louisiana, bounded w. by Atchafalaya bayou and e. by the Mississippi: 450 sq.m.; pop. '80, 17,544. The surface is low and level, and often inundated; land near the rivers is fertile. Staple products: cotton, maize, sugar, and molasses. Cap., Plaquemines.

IBERVILLE, co. of Quebec, Canada, e. of the river Richelieu; 190 sq.m.; pop. '81, 14,459; traversed by the Vermont Central, the Stanstead, Shefford, and Chambly railroads. Cap., Iberville.

IBERVILLE, PIERRE LE MOYNE, Sieur d'; 1661-1706; b. Montreal; one of five brothers distinguished in the French service. In 1686 he joined the expedition of De Troye from Canada against the English forts on Hudson's bay; in 1690 took part in the Indian and French massacre of the inhabitants of Schenectady; in 1694 captured Fort Nelson on Hudson's bay; in 1696 destroyed St. John's, Newfoundland, taking most of that province from the British; and in 1697 defeated them in naval fights in Hudson's bay. Sailing from Brest in 1698 with two frigates he reached the mouth of the Mississippi with his brother Bienville; fortified Biloxi, the first post on the Mississippi, and in 1700 ascended the river. In 1701, on account of the unhealthiness of the climate, he transferred the colony from Louisiana to Mobile, and began the settlement of Alabama. In 1702 he fortified Dauphin island, in Mobile bay; in 1706, with three ships, he captured the isle of Nevis, one of the Leeward group. He died at Havana, Cuba, July 9.

IBEX, the ancient name of the bouquetin (q.v.), or steinbock of the Alps; and now, according to some zoologists, of a genus of the goat family, or subgenus of goat, having the horns flat, and marked with prominent transverse knots in front, whereas those of the true goats are compressed and keeled in front, and rounded behind. The species are all inhabitants of high mountainous regions. The ibex of the Caucasus and the ibex of the Pyrenees differ a little from the ibex of the Alps, and from one another, but the differences may perhaps be regarded as those of varieties rather than of species. The conventional ibex represented in heraldry resembles the heraldic antelope in all respects, except that the horns are straight and serrated.

IBICUI', or IBICUY, an important affluent of the Uraguay (q.v.).

I'BIS, a genus of birds of the family ardeida, or, according to some ornithologists, of scolopacide, and perhaps to be regarded as a connecting link between them. The bill is long, slender, curved, thick at the base, the point rather obtuse, the upper mandible deeply grooved throughout its length. The face, and generally the greater part of the head, and sometimes even the neck, are destitute of feathers, at least in adult birds. The neck is long. The legs are rather long, naked above the tarsal joint, with three partially united toes in front, and one behind; the wings are moderately long; the tail is very short. The SACRED IBIS, or EGYPTIAN IBIS (I. religiosa), is an African bird, 2 ft. 6 in. in length, although the body is little larger than that of a common fowl. The GLOSSY IBIS (I. falcinellus) is a smaller species, also African, but migrating northwards into continental Europe, and occasionally seen in Britain. It is also a North American bird. Its habits resemble those of the sacred ibis. Its color is black, varied with reddish-brown, and exhibiting fine purple and green reflections. It has no loose pendent feathers. The WHITE IBIS (I. alba), a species with pure white plumage, abounds on the coasts of Florida. Audubon saw multitudes on a low islet, and counted 47 nests on a single tree. The SCARLET IBIS (I. ruber) is a tropical American species, remarkable for its brilliant plumage, which is scarlet, with a few patches of glossy black.-The STRAWNECKED IBIS (I. or geronticus spinicollis) is a large Australian bird of fine plumage, remarkable for stiff naked yellow feather-shafts on the neck and throat.

The SACRED IBIS, one of the birds worshiped by the ancient Egyptians, and called by them hab or hib, and by the modern Egyptians abu-Hannes (i.e., father John), is a bird with long beak and legs, and a heart-shaped body, covered with black and white plumage. It was supposed, from the color of its feathers, to symbolize the light and shade of the moon, its body to represent the heart; its legs described a triangle, and with its beak it performed a medical operation; from all which esoterical ideas it was the avatar of the god Thoth or Hermes (see HERMES), who escaped in that shape the pursuit of Typhon, as the hawk was that of Ra, or Horus, the sun. Its feathers were supposed to scare, and even kill the crocodile. It appeared in Egypt at the rise, and disappeared at the inundation of the Nile, and was thought, at that time, to deliver Egypt from the winged and other serpents which came from Arabia in certain narrow passes. As it did not make its nest in Egypt it was thought to be self-engendering, and to lay eggs for a lunar month. According to some the basilisk was engendered by it. It was celebrated for its purity, and only drank from the purest water, and the most strict of the priesthood only drank of the pools where it had been seen; besides which, it was fabled to entertain the most invincible love of Egypt, and to die of self-starvation if transported elsewhere. Its flesh was thought to be incorruptible after death, and to kill it was punishable with death. Ibises were kept in the temples, and unmolested in the neighborhood of cities. After death they were mummied, and there is no animal of which so many remains have been found at Thebes, Memphis, Hermopolis Magna, or Eshmun, and at Ibiu or Ibeum, 14 m. n. of the latter place. They are made up into a conical shape, the wings flat, the legs bent back to the breast, the head placed on the left side, and the beak under the tail. They were prepared as other mummies, and wrapped up in linen bandages, which are sometimes plaited in patterns externally. At Thebes they are found in linen bandages caly: at Hermopolis well preserved in wooden or stone boxes of oblong form, sometimes in form of the bird itself, or the god Thoth; at Memphis in conical sugar-loaf-shaped red earthen-ware jars, the tail downwards, the cover of convex form, cemented by lime. There appear to be two sorts of embalmed ibises—a smaller one of the size of a corncrake, very black, and the other black and white-the ibis numenius, or ibis religiosa. This last is usually found with its eggs, and with its insect food, the pimelia pilosa, akis reflexa, and portions of snakes, in the stomach. It is said to resemble the ibis of India rather than that of Africa. By the Jews it was held to be an unclean bird.-Wilkinson, Manners and Customs, v. 7, 217; Passoloegua, Catalogue Raisonné, p. 255; Pettigrew, History of Mummies, p. 205. See illus., OSTRICH, ETC., vol. XI., p. 98, fig. 11.

IBN-GANACH, ABULWALID MERWAN, or JONAH DJANAH, 995-1050; b. Cordova; a distinguished Jewish scholar. Removing to Saragossa he gave up the practice of medicine to devote himself to philological studies. His greatest work consists of two parts; the first chiefly a Hebrew grammar, and the second a Hebrew lexicon. The original is at Oxford, where it was of great service to Gesenius in the preparation of his thesaurus. Specimens of it, given by Gesenius and translated by Dr. Robinson, were published in the American Biblical Repository, 1833. The part which treats of Hebrew

"This gigantic

grammar was published by Kirchheim (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1856). work is the most important philological production in the Jewish literature of the middle ages. The mastery which it displays of the science of the Hebrew language in all its delicate points, the lucid manner in which it explains every grammatical difficulty, and its sound exegetical rules, have few parallels up to the present day." Ibn-Ganach was a proficient, also, in metaphysical studies, and composed a treatise on logic, in which he followed Aristotle. He strenuously opposed the speculations of Ibn-Gebirol and others of his day on the relation of God to the world as, in his view, dangerous to the maintenance of faith in the Scriptures.

IBRAHIM PASHA, the adopted son of Mohammed Ali, the viceroy of Egypt, was b. in 1789, and gave the first proofs of his gallantry and generalship in 1819, in quelling the insurrection of the Wahabis. He afterwards subdued Sennaar and Darfur. He invaded the Morea at the head of an Egyptian army in 1825, with the view of reducing it under the power of Mohammed Ali; but the intervention of the great powers in the affairs of Greece compelled him to abandon this enterprise in 1828. Mohammed Ali having conceived the design of adding Syria to his dominions, Ibrahim crossed the Egyptian border with an army in Oct., 1831, took Acre by storm, and quickly made himself master of the whole of Syria. A peace was concluded on May 4, 1833, the Turks not only consenting to give up Syria, but also making over Adana to Ibrahim personally, on a kind of lease. When war broke out again between Mohammed Ali and the sultan in 1839, Ibrahim was again successful, totally routing the Turks in the great battle of Nisib on June 24. The interference of the great powers eventually compelled him to relinquish all his Syrian conquests, and to return to Egypt. During his passage through the desert he suffered the most terrible hardships and losses, and the attempt to elevate Egypt to complete independence came to an end. In 1848, when the aged viceroy had sunk into absolute dotage, Ibrahim Pasha went to Constantinople, and was installed by the porte as viceroy of Egypt; but on Nov. 9, 1848, he died at Cairo. He was succeeded, not by any of his own children, but by Abbas Pasha, the favorite grandson of Mohammed Ali.

IBRAIL'. See BRAHILOV.

IB'YCUS, a Greek lyric poet, b. at Rhegium, Italy, in the 6th c. B.C.; lived mostly at Samos in the court of Polycrates. His writings are known only by fragments. A legend relates that when traveling he was waylaid by robbers near Corinth, and murdered. Looking up, mortally wounded, he saw a flock of cranes flying overhead, and implored them to avenge his death. The murderers went to Corinth, and in the theater saw the cranes hovering over the people. One of the murderers, in terror, cried out, “Behold the avengers of Ibycus." Inquiry led to discovery and punishment.

ICA, a t. of Peru, 170 m. s. s. w. from Lima, and connected by railway with Pisco, its port. It exports much wheat, maize, olive-oil, wine, and brandy.

ICARUS. See DEDALUS.

ICE is water in the solid form. It is specifically lighter than water which is just about to freeze, and therefore swims in it. Water, in becoming solid, expands about oneninth of its volume or bulk. The formation of ice takes place generally at the surface of water. This is owing to the peculiarity, that when water has cooled down to within 7.4 of freezing, it ceases to contract, as before, with increase of cold, and begins to expand until it freezes; which causes the coldest portions of the water to be always floating on the surface. In some circumstances, however, not very well explained, ice forms at the bottom of rivers, and is called ground-ice.

Water in ordinary cases freezes at the degree of heat marked 32° on Fahrenheit's thermometer, and 0° on the Centigrade and Reaumur's; but if it is kept perfectly still, it may be cooled to nearly 22° F. below freezing, and still remain liquid. The least shake, however, or the throwing in a solid body, makes a portion of it freeze instantly, and its temperature rises immediately to 32°. Sea-water, and salt water in general, freezes at a lower temperature than pure water; in doing which, part of the salt separates, and the ice, when melted, gives water that is fresher than the original. The color of pure ice is deep blue, which is only descernible, however, when it is in large masses. It is best seen in the clefts of a glacier or an iceberg.

In the neighborhood of the poles, and on mountains of a certain height in all latitudes, there exist immense masses of permanent ice; and even in some districts of Siberia, where a kind of culture is practicable in summer, there are found at a certain depth below the surface of the earth strata of ice mingled with sand. In sinking a well at Yakutsk the soil was found frozen hard to the depth of 382 ft., and consisting in some parts entirely of ice. These permanent masses of ice must be classed with rocks and mountains, as among the solid constituents of the globe. In the lower regions of the torrid zone there is no ice, and in the temperate zones, it is a passing phenomenon. From the polar ice-fields and glaciers, which are always protruding themselves into the sea, great floating masses become detached, and form icebergs, floes, and drift-ice. These bergs or mountains of ice are sometimes more than 250 ft. above the sea-level. They present the appearance of dazzling white chalk-cliffs of the most fantastic shapes. Fresh fractures have a green or blue color. From the specific gravity it is calculated

that the volume o. an iceberg below the water is eight times that of the protruding part. Icebergs, and floes or ice-fields, are often laden with pieces of rock and masses of stones and detritus, which they have brought with them from the coasts where they were formed, and which they often transport to a great distance towards the equator. These floating masses of ice are dangerous to navigation. See illus., GLACIERS, Vol. VI., p. 720, figs. 1-7.

The hardness and strength of ice increase with the degree of cold. In the severe winter of 1740 a house was built of the ice of the Neva at St. Petersburg 50 ft. long, 16 wide, and 20 high, and the walls supported the roof, which was also of ice, without the least injury. Before it stood two ice-mortars and six ice-cannon, made on the turning lathe, with carriages and wheels also of ice. The cannon were of the caliber of 6-pounders, but they were loaded with only lb. of powder, and with hemp-balls-on one occasion with iron. The thickness of the ice was only four inches, and yet it resisted the explosion.

About 24 years ago Faraday called attention to a remarkable property of ice, since (incorrectly) called regelation. He endeavored to account for the fact that two slabs of ice, with flat surfaces, placed in contact, unite into one mass when the temperature of the surrounding air is considerably above the freezing-point, by assuming that a small quantity of water, surrounded on every side by ice, has a natural tendency to become ice; and the fact that two blocks of ice placed in contact do not unite unless they are moist seems to bear out this idea. But J. Thomson gave a totally different explanation of this phenomenon. He showed that the capillary force of the film of water between the plates is sufficient to account for a very considerable pressure between them; so that from his point of view the phenomenon would be identical with the making of snowballs by pressure; and the formation, by a hydraulic press, of clear blocks from a mass of pounded ice, an observed fact, the explanation of which is to be found in the property of ice mentioned below. See Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1860-61. Faraday, taking up the question again, showed that the (so-called) regelation takes place in water as readily as in air, a fact quite inconsistent with the action of capillary forces. To this J. Thomson replied, showing, very ingeniously, that the capillary forces he at first assumed are not necessary to a complete explanation of the observed phenomena. See reference above.

Other views of the question are numerous, for instance, that of Persoz, adopted by Forbes, in which ice is considered as essentially colder than water, and as passing through a sort of viscous state before liquefying, as metals do during the process of melting. This idea, however, has not of late found much support; and it is probable that the true solution of the question is, as J. Thomson has lately pointed out, to be found in the analogy of the crystallization of salts from their aqueous solutions.

However that may be, there is no doubt about the following property of ice, theoreti cally predicted by J. Thomson from the experimental fact of its expanding in the act of freezing, and demonstrated by means of the piezometer by sir W. Thomson-viz., that the freezing point of water, or the melting-point of ice, is lowered by pressure; and the brothers have, with singular ingenuity, applied this to the explanation of the motion of glaciers. That a mass of glacier-ice moves in its channel like a viscous fluid, was first completely established by Forbes. Thomson's explanation of this motion is of the following nature: In the immense mass of the glacier (even if it were homogeneous, much more so when full of cracks and fissures, as it always is), there are portions subjected to a much greater strain than others. The pressure to which they are subjected is such as corresponds to a melting-point considerably below the temperature of the mass -and therefore, at such points, the ice melts, the strain is relieved, and the whole mass is free for an instant to move nearly as a fluid would move in its place. But, the strains being thus for an instant removed, the temperature and pressure of the water are again consistent with freezing-the thin layer of water quickly solidifies, and then matters proceed as before. Thus, at every instant, the strains at different parts of the mass melt it at those places where they are greatest, and so produce the extraordinary phenomenon of a mass which may in common language be termed solid, and even rigid, slowly creeping down its rocky bed like a stream of tar or treacle.

Ice-Trade and Manufacture.-The trade in ice is now one of great and increasing importance. Ice has always been esteemed as a luxury in warm weather; and this early led to the storing of it in winter and preserving it for summer use. The Greeks, and afterwards the Romans, at first preserved snow, closely packed in deep underground cellars. Nero, at a later period, established ice-houses in Rome, similar to those in use in most European countries up to the present time. But these means were not enough to supply the luxurious Romans with ice for cooling beverages, and they actually established a trade in snow, which was brought to Rome from the summits of distant mountains.

The trade in ice in Great Britain has, until lately, been very limited, having been chiefly confined to the supply required by a few of the first-class fishmongers and confectioners opulent families having their own ice-houses. But the North Americans have started a trade in this article in their own cities, which has extended to Europe and Asia, and has, in an incredibly short space of time, attained a surprising magnitude. The export of ice from America was commenced about 1820 by a merchant named Tudor, who sent ice from Boston to the West Indies. After persevering against many losses he