Greece. Turks, these hardy mountaineers chose to leave their ancient homes and settle in the new kingdom, to establish which they had shed their blood. The red cap, the white shirt, and the golden jacket, mark them out even to the casual observer as a separate class. They go about armed, and attended by armed followers; their houses are fortresses, and their servants form a little army. The islanders are almost all seamen or traders; they wear the red cap. a short jacket, and wide Turkish trousers. The Albanians form about a fourth of the population; they are a strong, hardy race, and engage in agricultural or other severe labor. They are the hewers of wood and drawers of water to the more wealthy classes. They speak a language which is little allied to either Slavonic or Greek. The Wallachs are a nomad and pastoral race; they sleep on the hillsides with their flocks, which are guarded by ferocious dogs. There are large numbers of Maltese at Athens, and the Piræus especially. There are few settlers from western Europe. The Bavarians who swarmed into Greece on the accession of king Otho have almost all disappeared. Religion.-See the articles GREek Religion (ancient), and GREEK CHURCH. Education (ancient).—The education of the ancient Greeks was more of a physical than of a mental kind. The gymnasium was that of the athlete, not that of the didaskalos or preceptor. Young children were, till about their sixth year, trained at home under females, but were then sent to the didaskaleia, or schools under the charge of private tutors or pædagogi. The duty of the pædagogus was rather to keep his wards from outward injury and bad companions, than to teach them the accomplishments of grammar (including reading, writing, and arithmetic), music, and gymastics, the favorite subjects of study in those days. In later times, the more intelligent slaves were specially trained for the duties of the pædagogus.-Modern.-Education of all kinds, from the humblest school to the university, is free to all. Hence, an unusual number of Greeks press into the learned professions, and a large educational machinery is necessary to supply the demand for knowledge. There are about 370 communal or elementary schools, and 180 Hellenic schools, in which, among other branches, ancient Greek is taught. Besides these, there are eight gymnasia, four medical schools, one theological, one military, one agricultural school, one school of arts; and finally, there is the university of Athens, which possesses the four faculties of theology, philosophy, law, and medicine. All these institutions are well attended, and the youth of all ages are most zealous in prosecuting their studies. Language (ancient). The Greek language is a branch of that widespread family of tongues, usually called Indo-Germanic or Aryan. It prevailed not only in the different parts of Greece, but also in the numerous Greek colonies which fringed the shores of the Euxine and the Mediterranean. But it must not be supposed that it was of the same type at all periods of Greek history, or in all parts of Greece, even at the same time. The three great branches of the Greek tongue were: 1. The Æolic, the oldest form, and that which presents the greatest affinity to the Latin and other members of the IndoGermanic stock. 2. The Doric, a highland dialect, delighting in broad and rough sounds; it was spoken in the mountains of Thessaly, whence it traveled southward, and on the migration of the Dorians, took possession of the Peloponnesus. 3. The Ionic, a soft and vocal language, delighting in vowel sounds, and avoiding the harsh combination of consonants; it was spoken principally by the people of Attica and the Ionian colonies in Asia Minor. From it was made, by a series of contractions and modifications, that most perfect form of the Greek language, the Attic, which was neither so harsh and broad as the Doric, nor so soft and vocal as the Ionic. It was brought to the height of perfection by the poets, the philosophers, and the historians of Greece, whose writings still teach the world, and command its admiration. By the conquests of Alexander the Great, the Greek language soon spread over a large part of the then known world, but corruption at once set in-words of other languages were adopted into the Greek, foreign idioms were introduced, and the rigid syntax of the great Athenian writers was neglected, so that, in process of time, there arose a depraved form of speech, called the Hellenistic, varying in many essential points from its great parent. In this last form, the books of the New Testament were written. The process of deterioration still went on till about the middle of the last century; when at length the spirit of the Greek nation again arose, and amidst other endeavors to revive the ancient glory of their race, an attempt was made, and is still being made, and that too with great success, to restore the purity of the language. This leads us to the Language of Modern Greece.In different parts of Greece, different languages are spoken according to the element which predominates in the population. Thus Turkish prevails in some districts, Albanian in others, Wallachian in others, and Bulgarian in others; but in the greater part of Greece proper, the language is Romaic Greek, or as it is now more usually and more properly called, Neo-Hellenic. This language bears a very close resemblance to the Hellenic, or classical Greek; and in fact does not differ more, if so much, from the Attic, as the Attic differed from the Doric. Information on this subject must be sought in a grammar of the language. Great efforts have been made in recent years to purge the Neo-Hellenic of barbarisms and foreign terms, and it is now written with such purity, that good scholars in ancient Greek will have little difficulty in understanding Tricoupi's bistory or an Athenian newspaper. Literature (ancient).—The literature of Greece is a subject so extensive, that we can not hope to give any adequate view of it in our limited space. Those who wish to study the matter further, must have recourse to a full treatise. Poetry seems to have been the earliest form of composition among the Greeks, as indeed it must of neces sity be in all nations, for facility of recollection; hence Memory is called the Mother of the Muses. The earliest species of poems seems to have been hymns in honor of the gods; to these succeeded songs praising the glorious deeds of heroes; but the greatest poem of ancient times which has come down to us is the Iliad of Homer, detailing the events connected with the siege of Troy, and the warriors who took part in that famous expedition. The Iliad and Odyssey have been too long and too generally known and admired to need a word said in their commendation. The remarkable popularity of the Homeric poems produced a host of imitators; and hence we find that a great many poets endeavored to rival the fame of the "blind old man," by narrating in verse the after-fate and vicissitudes of the heroes who took part in the war of Troy, or by treating of subjects allied to that of the Iliad, and even of mythological fables. These were called the Cyclic poets; they were posterior to Homer and Hesiod; their writings were put together in chronological order by some Alexandrine grammarians about 200 B. C. The Homeric period is closed by the name of Hesiod. Homer is supposed to have flourished about 900 B.C., and Hesiod about 850 B.C. Hesiod's most celebrated writings are the Theogony, the Shield of Hercules, and the Works and Days, an agricultural poem. Of his others, only small fragments are preserved. Epic poetry culminated in Homer, and with him and his contemporaries it sets. Of lyric poetry, there were two schoolsthe Æolic in Asia Minor and adjacent islands, especially Lesbos, and the Doric in Peloponnesus and Sicily. Of the Eolic school, the earliest poet was Callinus (700 B.C.); after him came Archilochus, so famed for his cutting satires, written in iambic verse; Tyrtæus, and Simonides of Amorgos, who contests with Archilochus the honor of having invented iambic verse. Alcæus and Sappho (about 610 B.C.) represent the Eolic school in its perfection. Nor must we forget the school-boy's favorite, Anacreon (about 520 B.C.), to whom, however, are attributed many pieces which are not considered genuine. Of the Doric or choral school, it may suffice to mention Alcman, Stesichorus, Arion, Simonides, Bacchylides, and greatest of all in every known variety of choral poetry, Pindar (q.v.) the Theban (522 B.C.). Greek literature reached its highest perfection in the tragedies of Eschylus (b. 525, d. 456 B.C.); Sophocles (b. 495, d. 405 B.C.); and Euripides (b. 480, d. 406 B.C.). The writers who endeavored to follow in the track of these three great masters were of far inferior merit, and with them tragedy degenerated to the effeminacy of lyrical songs and mere rhetorical bombast. Comedy, like tragedy, took its origin from the worship of Bacchus. The three great names of the old Attic comedy are Cratinus, Eupolis, and Aristophanes (b. 452, d. 380 B.C.). In middle comedy, we have the names of Antiphanes and Alexis; and in new comedy Philemon and Menander. History did not engage the attention of the Greeks till a comparatively late period. Passing over the names of Cadmus of Miletus, Pherecydes of Scyros, Hecatæus, and Charon of Lampsacus, we come to Herodotus, the father of history, or, as he has been called, the Homer of history, who flourished about 440; Thucydides, about 430; and Xenophon, about 400. In later times, we find Polybius (204-122 B.C.); Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, who flourished about 20 B.C.; Diodorus Siculus, a contemporary of Julius and Augustus Caesar; Plutarch; Appian (in time of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius); Arrian (time of Hadrian); and Dion Cassius. In geography, we have Strabo and Pausanius. In satire, the palm is carried off by Lucian (q.v.). In oratory it may be sufficient to mention the names of Antiphon, (b. 480 B.C.), Andocides (467 B.C.), Lysias (458 B.C.), Isocrates (436 B.c), Eschines, the great rival of Demosthenes (389 B.C.), Hyperides; and last and greatest of all, Demosthenes (385 B.C.). On the philosophers, see PHILOSOPHY. Literature (modern).-The literature of modern Greece is still in its infancy. No work of importance appeared previous to the revolution; but since the establishment of the kingdom in 1829, more life has been infused into the men of a literary bent. The names of the brothers Panagiotis and Alexander Soutsos are well known to many in England. They have written dramas, love-songs, novels, lyrics, and a poem (by Alexander) in the style of Byron's Childe Harold, detailing the wanderings, sights, and adventures of a Greek in France and Italy. In most of these there is much merit, though few readers can fully appreciate the style and handling. Among dramatic writers, Neroulos, Rangavis, and Charmouzis hold a foremost place. The Memoirs of Different Battles fought between the Greeks and Turks from 1820 to 1829, by Perrævos, is a well-written book. In grammar and lexicography, Banvas, Gennadios, Scarlatto Byzantino, and others have done good service to the cause of learning. But of all the Neo-Hellenic works yet published, the History of the Greek Revolution by Tricoupis is the most valuable-valuable not only for its statement and facts, but also for the purity and elegance of its style. Many newspapers and other periodicals, in Neo-Hellenic, are published at Athens, Constantinople, London, and elsewhere; but the expense of these literary efforts in in most cases borne by wealthy Greek merchants now so frequently met with in the west of Europe. It will require many years of good government, of national industry and prosperity, before Greece can expect to assume that position in the world of letters which the prestige of her name entitles her to anticipate. The History (ancient).-The early history of Greece is lost in the mist of ages. legends of gods and heroes, which constitute her only approach to history, are of that marvelous kind in which a superstitious and ignorant age delights. But how much truth may underlie the stories of Cecrops, Cadmus, Danaus, Theseus, Heracles, and many others, it is difficult to say; or to what extent the events of the Argonautic expedition, Trojan war, hunt of the Calydonian boar, and other joint-stock exploits may be real, historians can never hope to discover. The heroic age is roughly estimated as continuing from 1400 to 1200 B.C.; but all Greek chronology is mere guess until the first Olympiad, 776 B.C. Of the migrations which took place during these early days, and of the numerous colonie's planted by the Greeks, it is unnecessary to speak in this brief sketch; nor can we do more than merely refer to the wars of the Spartans against the Messenians, which, beginning in 743 B.C., did not ultimately terminate until Ithome was destroyed in the third Messenian war, 455 B.C. Meantime, wars of less magnitude are carried on in different parts of Greece; Solon legislates at Athens (594 B.C.); Pisistratus and his sons enjoy the " tyrannis" at Athens from 560 B.C. to 510 B.C.; Croesus, king of Lydia, and Cyrus the great, his conqueror, are brought into contact with the Asiatic Greeks (560-542 B.C.). And now, in 499 B.C., the burning of Sardis by the Athenians and Ionians leads to those three invasions of Greece by the Persians which end so gloriously for Greece, and so disastrously for Persia, and with the particulars of which all are so well acquainted. The first, under Mardonius, in 492 B.C., is averted by the shipwreck of the invading fleet off Mount Athos; the second, under Datis and Artaphernes, in 490 B.C., is hurled back from Marathon; and the third, under Xerxes, 480 B. C., is utterly shattered at Thermopylæ, Salamis, and Platea. Greece is now a mighty name, but the Athenians become the ruling state, and their supremacy continues till 404 B. C. Meantime, disunion at home succeeds the contests with foreign enemies. The great Peloponnesian war begins in 431 B.C., and wastes the energies of Greece for 27 years, until the subjugation and partial demolition of Athens, in 404 B.C., put an end for a time to the fratricidal struggle. It was in 415 B.C., the 17th of this war, that the famous and unfortunate expedition to Sicily took place. Under Pericles, who was the ruling spirit of Athens at the commencement of the war, but who died of the great plague in 429 B.C., the Athenians reached the highest pitch of excellence in sculpture and architecture; then were raised some of those wondrous buildings whose remains still excite the admiration of posterity at a distance of more than 2,000 years. In 401 B.C. the expedition of Cyrus the younger to dethrone his brother Artaxerxes, took place; the battle of Cunaxa, in which Cyrus was slain, was fought in the same year. Cyrus had employed Greek mercenaries, and this brief war is specially famed for the masterly retreat of the 10,000 Greeks under Xenophon the Athenian in 401-400 B.C. The next year (399 B.C.), Socrates the philosopher, the teacher of Plato and Xenophon, was put to death. After the defeat of the Athenians in the Peloponnesian war, the Spartan state became the leading power in Greece, and was engaged in four wars in sucession-1. the Elean (399-398 B.C.); 2. the Corinthian (395-387 B.C.); 3. the Olynthian (380-379 B.C.); 4. the Theban (378-362 B.C.). The great Spartan hero of these troublous times was Agesilaus, whose panegyric has been written by Xenophon with a friendly pen. During these eventful years were fought the battles of Coronea and of Corinth (394 B.C.), Orchomenus (375 B.C.), Leuctra (371 B.C.), Mantinea, in which the Theban hero, Epaminondas, was slain, 362 B.C. In 359 B.C. Philip ascends the throne of Macedonia, and a few years afterwards finds occasion to intermeddle in the affairs of Greece. Some of the allies of Athens renounce his supremacy, and thus arises the social war (357-355 B.C.), in which Athens loses many of her tributaries, and much of her revenue. The sacred war (355-346 B.C.) immediately follows, in which Philip takes part. About this time (352 B.C.), Demosthenes delivered the first of those powerful orations against Philip, called Philippics. In the battle of Chæroneia (338 B.C.), the Athenians and Thebans are utterly defeated by Philip; and at the congress of Corinth, in the following year, he is appointed generalissimo of the Greek forces against Persia. But the hand of the assassin cut him off at a marriage-feast in Macedonia; and after an unsuccessful revolt against his son Alexander, the Greeks are compelled to bestow upon the youthful hero the same high military office with which they had intrusted his father. The events of Alexander's career are well known. From this time Greece becomes an appanage of the Macedonian kingdom, until Macedon is in turn overcome by the Romans. During the wars which arose among the successors of Alexander, Greece was always the bone of contention; she suffered in consequence many hardships and enjoyed but few lulls of peace. The last struggle for Grecian liberty was made by the Achæan League (a confederacy of cities at one time embracing all Peloponnesus, which had a common object, a common council, and a common chief or strategus), but it too fell before the conquer. ing arms of Rome, and after the capture of Corinth in 146 B.C. by the consul Mummius, the once mighty Greece became a province of the Roman empire. History (modern).-The history of Greece for some centuries after the capture of Corinth belongs to the history of her conqueror. The Roman wars with Antiochus, |