Precession. Sion, is to that of the nutation as the cotangent of E is to the sine of . This also appears by considering fig. 7. Pp measures the angle A, or change of position of the equator; but the precession itself, reckoned on the ecliptic, is measured by Po, and the nutation by po; and the fluxion of the precession is equal to the fluxion of cot. E but cot. Y E⇒ad+bcy there 55 56 59 58 Gives the matter of putation X sine the fluxion of the nutation, gives Cx : This, multiplied into as I to 17. This gives 313" of precession, corresponding to 18", the observed nutation, which is about 35′′ of precession annually produced by the moon. And thus we see, that the inequality produced by disturbing the moon in the precession of the equinoxes, and, more Sorce and particularly, the nutation occasioned by the variable obthe moon. liquity of her orbit, enables us to judge of her share in the whole phenomenon; and therefore informs us of her disturbing force, and therefore of her quantity of matter. This phenomenon, and those of the tides, are the only facts which enable us to judge of this matter: and this is one of the circumstances which has caused this problem to occupy so much attention. Dr Bradley, by a nice comparison of his observations with the mathematical theory, as it is called, furnished him by Mr Machin, found that the equation of precession computed by that theory was too great, and that the theory would agree better with the observations, if an ellipse Precession, were substituted for Mr Machin's little circle. He Precia. thought that the shorter axis of this ellipse, lying in the colure of the solstices, should not exceed 16". Nothing can more clearly show the astonishing accuracy of Bradley's observations than this remark: for it results from the theory, that the pole must really describe an ellipse, having its shorter axis in the solstitial colure, and the ratio of the axis must be that of 18 to 16.8; for the mean precession during a half revolution of the node is ""(d3); and therefore, for the longi 2 n 2 mxncd Greatest This greatest equation of precession is to equation of C precession. the nutation of 18", as b'-a' to 2ab; that is, as radius to the tangent of twice the obliquity of the ecliptic. This gives the greatest equation of precession 16".8, not differing half a second from Bradley's observations. Thus have we attempted to give some account of this curious and important phenomenon. It is curious, because it affects the whole celestial motions in a very intricate manner, and received no explanation from the more obvious application of mechanical principles, which so happily accounted for all the other appearances. It is one of the most illustrious proofs of Sir Isaac Newton's sagacity and penetration, which catched at a very remote analogy between this phenomenon and the li bration of the moon's orbit. It is highly important to the progress of practical and useful astronomy, because it has enabled us to compute tables of such accuracy, that they can be used with confidence for determining the longitude of a ship at sea. This alone fixes its importance: but it is still more important to the philosopher, affording the most incontestable proof of the universal and mutual gravitation of all matter to all matter. It left nothing in the solar system unexplained from the theory of gravity but the acceleration of the moon's mean motion; and this has at last been added to the list of our acquisitions by M. de la Place. Quæ toties animos veterum torsere Sophorum, Precia Predestina tion. I The doc few genera which agree with it in habit and structure, humana cursus vehit. Ille ipse omnium conditor ac rec- Prodesia PRECIPITATE, in Chemistry, a substance which having been dissolved in a proper menstruum, is again separated from its solvent, and thrown down to the bottom of the vessel by pouring some other liquor upon it. PRECIPITATION, the process by which a preci- PRECOGNITION, in Scots Law. See Law, Part PRECORDIA, in Anatomy, a general name for the PREDECESSOR, properly signifies a person who has preceded or gone before another in the same office or employment; in which sense it is distinguished from ancestor. PREDESTINATION, the decree of God wheretrine stated. by he hath from all eternity unchangeably appointed whatsoever comes to pass; and hath more especially fore-ordained certain individuals of the human race to everlasting happiness, and hath passed by the rest, and fore-ordained them to everlasting misery. The former of these are called the elect, and the latter are called the reprobate. 2 Not peculiar to Christiamity. This doctrine is the subject of one of the most perplex- Andromache! my soul's far better part, According to the words of Seneca, Eadem necessi- done. Mahomet introduced into his Koran the doctrine of an absolute predestination of the course of human affairs. He represented life and death, prosperity and adversity, and every event that befals a man in this world, as the result of a previous determination of the one God who rules over all; and he found this opinion the best engine for inspiring his followers with that contempt of danger, which, united to their zeal, has extended the empire of their faith over the fairest portion of the habitable globe. the e The controversy concerning predestination first made Wes its appearance in the Christian church about the beginning of the fifth century. Pelagius a British, and Cœlestius an Irish monk, both lived at Rome during that period, and possessed great celebrity on account of their Loc piety and learning. They taught that the opinion is false, which asserts, that human nature is necessarily corrupted by a depravity derived from our first parents.— They contended, that men are born at present in a state as pure as that in which Adam was originally cre ated; and that they are not less qualified than he was for fulfilling all righteousness, and for reaching the most sublime eminence of piety and virtue: that the external grace of God, which is given unto all, and attends the preaching of the gospel, is necessary to call forth the attention and exertions of men; but that we do not want the assistance of any internal grace to pu rify the heart, and to give it the first impulse towards what is good. Having fled into Africa on account of the Goths, who at that time invaded Italy, A. D. 419, Cœlestius remained at Carthage as a presbyter; but Pelagius went into the East, where he settled, and prospered under the patronage of John bishop of Jerusalem, to whom his sentiments were agreeable. On the Angu contrary, the celebrated Augustine, bishop of Hippo, a pre strenuously asserted the depravity of human nature since naria the fall of the first man, the necessity of a special interposition of divine grace to enable us to do any one good action; and consequently, that none could obtain salvaaction excepting those whom God has thought fit to elect, and upon whom he bestows this grace. The dis pute was carried on with great zeal. Zozimus bishop of Rome decided at first in favour of Pelagius and Coelestius, whose followers were called Pelagians; but he afterwards altered his opinion; and by the ac tivity of Augustine, the council of Ephesus was called, 籃 and all the In the course of the same century, these opinions assumed a variety of forms and modifications. One party, called Predestinarians, carried Augustine's doctrine fully farther than he himself had ventured to do in express words; and asserted, that God had not only predestinated the wicked to punishment, but also that he had decreed that they should commit those very sins on account of which they are hereafter to be punished.Another party moderated the doctrine of Pelagius, and were called Semipelagians. Their peculiar opinion is expressed in a different manner by different writers; but all the accounts sufficiently agree. Thus, some represent them as maintaining that inward grace is not necessary to the first beginning of repentance, but only to our progress in virtue. Others say, that they acknowledged the power of grace, but said that faith depends upon ourselves, and good works upon God; and it is agreed upon all hands, that these Semipelagians held that predestination is made upon the foresight of good works. The assistance of Augustine, though then far advanced in life, was called in to combat these tenets, and he wrote several treatises upon the subject. In all these he strenuously maintained, that the predestination of the elect was independent of any foresight of their good works, but was according to the good pleasure of God only; and that perseverance comes from God, and not from man. Thereafter the doctrine of Augustine, or St Austin as he is often called, became general. He was the oracle of the schoolmen. They never ventured to differ from him in sentiment; they only pretended to dispute about the true sense of his writings. The whole of the earliest reformers maintained these earliest re- opinions of Augustine. They assumed under Luther a formers, but more regular and systematic form than they had ever more espe- formerly exhibited. But as the Lutherans afterwards cially Calabandoned them, they are now known by the name vin. of Calvinistic Doctrines, from John Calvin of Geneva. He asserted, that the everlasting condition of mankind in a future world was determined from all eternity by the unchangeable decree of the Deity, arising from his sole good pleasure or free will. Being a man of great ability, industry, and eloquence, Geneva, where he taught, and which was a free state, soon became the resort of all the men of letters belonging to the reformed churches, and was a kind of seminary from which misssionaries issued to propagate the Protestant doc trines through Europe. Their success was such, that, excepting a part of Germany, the principles of all the reformed churches are professedly Calvinistic or Predestinarian. 6 Rise of the Arminians. The opponents of the doctrine of predestination aRamong the Protestants usually receive the appellation of Historica Arminians or Remonstrants. They derive the first of de Origine these appellations from James Arminius, who was A. D. et Progres- 1602, appointed* professor of theology at Leyden. He su Controwas violently opposed by Gomer his colleague, and versiarum in Phade- died A. D. 1609. After his death, the controversy rato Belgio was conducted with great eagerness on both sides. de Præ The Calvinists, however, gradually prevailed. A synod destinatione was called at Dort, A. D. 1618, to which the most Philippi à Limborch. celebrated divines of different countries were invited. There, in a great measure, by the authority and influ tion. ence of Maurice prince of Orange, the Arminians were Predestina condemned as heretics; for by this time ambitious and powerful men found themselves politically interested in this religious contest. The Arminians presented to this synod a remonstrance, containing a statement of their faith upon the subjects in dispute; and from this they derived the appellation of Remonstrants. This statement contained the following five articles: 1. That God from all eternity predestinated those to everlasting salvation whom he foresaw would believe in Christ unto the end of their lives; and predestinated obstinate unbelievers to everlasting punishment. 2. Jesus Christ died for the whole human race, and for every individual of it, but believers alone reap the benefit of his death. 3. No man can produce faith in his mind by his own free will, but it is necessary that man, who is by nature wicked and unfit for acting or thinking aright, shouldbe regenerated by the grace of the Holy Spirit, imparted by God for Christ's sake. 4. This divine grace constitutes the source, the progress, and the fulfilment, of all that is good in man; but it is not irresistible in its operation. 5. Believers, by the assistance of the Holy Spirit, are abundantly fitted for every good work; but whether it is possible for those who have once been truly such to fall away, and to perish finally, is not clear, and must be better inquired into by searching the sacred scriptures. tion. 7 In opposition to these, a counter-remonstrance was presented, containing the opinions of the Calvinists, which was approved of by the synod. The substance of it was afterwards adopted, and in nearly the same expressions, into the Confession of Faith compiled by the assembly of divines which met at Westminster, Á. D. 1643, and which every clergyman and probationer for the ministry in Scotland is at present required to subscribe previous to his admission. To give as clear and Calvinistic as fair an idea as possible of the Calvinistic doctrine up- doctrine of on this head, we transcribe the following passage predestina-from that Confession: "God from all eternity did, by the most wise and holy counsel of his own will, freely and unchangeably ordain whatsoever comes to pass; yet so, as thereby neither is God the author of sin, nor is violence offered to the will of the creatures, nor is the liberty or contingency of second causes taken away, but rather established. Although God knows whatsoever may or can come to pass upon all supposed conditions; yet hath he not decreed any thing because he foresaw it as future, or that which would come to pass upon such conditions. By the decree of God, for the manifestation of his glory, some men and angels are predestina-ted unto everlasting life, and others are fore-ordained to everlasting death. These angels and men, thus predestinated and fore-ordained, are particularly and unchangeably designed; and their number is so certain and definite, that it cannot be either increased or diminished. Those of mankind that are predestinated unto life, God, before the foundation of the world was laid, according to his eternal and imciutable purpose, and the secret counsel and good pleasure of his will, hath chosen, in Christ, unto everlasting glory, out of his mere free grace and love, without any foresight of faith, or good works, or perseverance in eit. r of them, or any other thing in the creature, as conditions or causes moving him thereunto; and all to the praise of his glorious grace. As God hath appointed the elect unto glo ry Predestina- ry, so hath he, by the eternal and most free purpose of tion. his will, fore-ordained all the means thereunto. Where Sublapsari ans. fore, they who are elected, being fallen in Adam, are redeemed by Christ, are effectually called unto faith in Christ, by his spirit working in due season; are justified, adopted, sanctified, and kept, by his power through faith unto salvation. Neither are any other redeemed by Christ effectually called, justified, adopted, sanctified, and saved, but the elect only. The rest of mankind, God was pleased, according to the unsearchable counsel of his own will, whereby he extendeth or withholdeth mercy as he pleaseth for the glory of his sovereign power over his creatures, to pass by, and to ordain them to dishonour and wrath for their sin, to the praise of his glorious justice." Supralap- There are two kinds of Calvinists or Predestinarians, sarians and viz. the Supralapsarians, who maintained that God did originally and expressly decree the fall of Adam, as a foundation for the display of his justice and mercy; while those who maintain that God only permitted the fall of Adam, are called Sublapsarians, their system of decrees concerning election and reprobation, being as it were, subsequent to that event. But as Dr Priestley justly remarks, if we admit the divine precience, there is not, in fact, any difference between the two schemes; and accordingly that distinction is now seldom mentioned. Nor was the church of Rome less agitated by the Disputes in the church contest about predestination than the first Protestants of Rome on were. The council of Trent was much perplexed how the subject. to settle the matter without giving offence to the Dominicans, who were much attached to the doctrine of Augustine, and possessed great influence in the council. After much dispute, the great object came to be, how to contrive such a deeree as might give offence to nobody, although it should decide nothing. Upon the whole, however, they seem to have favoured the Semipelagian scheme. Among other things, it was determined, that good works are of themselves meritorious to eternal life; but it is added, by way of softening, that it is through the goodness of God, that he makes his own gifts to be merits in us. Catarin revived at that council an opinion of some of the schoolmen, that God chose a small number of persons, such as the blessed virgin, the apostles, &c. whom he was determined to save without any foresight of their good works; and that he also wills that all the rest should be saved, providing for them all necessary means, but they are at liberty to use them or not. This is called the Baxterian scheme in England, from one of its promoters there. But at all events, the council of Trent seems to have been extremely anxious that any opinions entertained among them concerning predestination might have as little influence as possible upon practical morality. "Let no man (say they), while he remains in this mortal state, presume that he is among the number of the elect, and that therefore he cannot sin, or sin without repentance; Predestina for it cannot be known who are elected without a special revelation from God." Sect. 6. c. 13. The Jesuits at first followed the opinion of Augustine; but they afterwards forsook it. Molina, one of their order, was the author of what is called the middle scheme, or the doctrine of a grace sufficient for all men, but subject to the freedom of the human will. Jansenius, a doctor of Louvain, opposed the Jesuits, with great vigour, and supported the doctrine of Augustine. He wrote in a very artful manner. He declared, that he did not presume to state his own sentiments upon the subject. He pretended only to explain and publish the sentiments of that great father of the church St Augustine. But the Jesuits, in consequence of that inviolable submission to the authority of the pope, which they always maintained, had sufficient interest at Rome to procure the opinion of Jansenius to be condemned there but with this addition subjoined, that nothing was thereby intended to be done in prejudice of the doctrine of St Augustine. This produced an absurd dispute about the pope's infallibility in matters of fact. The Jansenists affirmed, that the pope had made a mistake in condemning the opinion of Jansenius as different from those of Augustine; whereas in truth they are the same, and the one cannot be condemned without the other. But the Jesuits affirmed, that the pope is no less infallible in points of fact than he is in questions of faith; and he having decided, that the opinions of Jansenius are different from those of St Augustine, every good catholic is bound to believe accordingly that they are different. These disputes have never been fully settled, and still divide the Roman catholic churches. Some of the ablest supporters of predestination have appeared among the Jansenists, and particularly among the gentlemen of Port-Royal. 10 tion. and Scotch With regard to Great Britain, the earliest English English reformers were in general Sublapsarians, although some reformers of them were Supralapsarians. But the rigid Predesti- predestina narians have been gradually declining in number in that rans. church, although they still subscribe the 39 articles of their faith, which are unquestionably Calvinistic. The celebrated Scotch reformer John Knox having been educated at Geneva, established in this country the doctrine of predestination in its strictest form and it has probably been adhered to with more closeness in Scotland than in any country in Europe. Of late years, however, the dispute concerning predestination has assumed a form considerably different from that which it formerly possessed. Instead of being considered as a point to be determined almost entirely by the sacred scriptures, in the hands of a number of able writers, it has in a great measure resolved itself into a question of natural religion, under the head of the philosophical liberty or necessity of the will (a); or, whether all human actions are or are not necessarily de termined (A) Dr Priestley, the most celebrated Necessarian of the age, has written a whole section of his Illustrations, with a view to show, that between "the two schemes of Calvinistic predestination and philosophical necessity, there is no sort of resemblance, except that the future happiness or misery of all men is certainly foreknown and appointed by God. In all other respects (says he) they are most essentially different; and even where they agree in the end, the difference in the manner by which that end is accomplished is so very great, that the influence of the twe tion. Predestina- termined by motives arising from the character which prayer absurd, and even the preaching of the gospel Predestination. God has impressed on our minds, and the train of cir- vain; seeing that all things are immutably fixed, and cumstances amidst which his providence has placed us? none can believe or be saved excepting the elect, and We have already discussed this point (see METAPHY- they must certainly and at all events be safe. Against SICS) by giving a candid statement of the arguments all this they reason thus. on both sides of the question. We shall treat the subject of predestination in the same manner, avoiding as far as possible any recapitulation of what has been advanced under the head of NECESSITY and Liberty. Points at nents. From what has been already said, it will appear that issue be the points chiefly at issue between the parties are the tween the following: First, With what views and purposes did predestina. rians and God create the world and frame his decrees concerning their oppo mankind? Did he contrive a great unalterable scheme of creation and providence only for the sake of manifesting his own glory and perfections? Or did he first consider the free motions of those rational agents whom he intended to create, and frame his decrees upon the consideration of what they might choose or do in all the various circumstances in which he intended to place them?-The second and following questions are branches of this leading one. Did Christ die for a particular portion of the human race, who shall therefore certainly be saved? or was his death intended as a benefit to all, from which none are excluded excepting those who willingly reject it? Is the divine grace certainly and irresistibly efficacious in all those minds to which it is given? or does its effect depend upon the good use which men may or may not make of it? Can any good action be done without it? Do those who have once received it certainly persevere and obtain eternal salvation? or is it possible for any of them to fall away and perish finally? 12 Arguments trige We shall begin by stating the argument on the side for the doc- of the predestinarians, and in the language which they commonly use. But it is necessary to make this pre• Calvini vious remark, that the general* objections to their docRespons. trine are, that it is hostile to all our ideas of the justice contra Pig-of God, representing him as a partial being, rewarding without merit, and punishing without sin; that it renadum lib. ders him the author of evil, destroys moral distinctions, makes useless every effort on our part, makes every baium, ad The great and everlasting Author of all things existed from eternity alone, independent and essentially perfect. As there was no other, he could only consider himself and his own glory. He must therefore have designed all things in and for himself. To make him stay his determinations till he should see what free creatures would do, is to make him decree with uncertainty, and dependently upon them, which falls short of infinite perfection. He existed alone, and his counsels could have no object excepting himself; he could only then consider the display of his own attributes and perfection. In doing this, as the end is more important than the means, Divine Wisdom must begin its designs with that which is to come last in the execution of them; but the conclusion of all things at the last judgement will be the complete manifestation of the wisdom, the goodness, and justice of God: we must therefore suppose, that in the order of things, he decreed that first, although with him, in the order of time, there is no first nor second, but all is from eternity. When this great design was laid, the means were next designed. Creation, and its inhabitants of every order, form the means by which the author and disposer of all things accomplishes his will. But creatures in his sight are nothing, and are figuratively said to be less than nothing. We may entertain proud and elevated conceptions of our own dignity if we please; but if we in our designs regard not the dust on which we tread, or the lives of ants and insects, the omnipotent Lord of all, from whom we are more infinitely distant, must regard us as at least equally inconsiderable, and only valuable as we serve the accomplishment of his great and mysterious purposes, which cannot be us or our aggrandisement, but himself and his own glory. 13 It is only by this view of the divine conduct that as necessome of the attributes of God can be explained, or their sary to exexistence rendered possible. In the scriptures he claims plain the Divine atthe attribute of prescience as his distinguishing prero-tributes. gative; Divines at two systems on the minds of those that adopt and act upon them is the reverse of one another. The Calvinistic + Essay on The piety of these assertions will be obvious, we are persuaded, to every one of our readers; but to some it is Philosophi possible that their consistency may not be apparent. We would advise all such " to peruse once and again Dr ty by AlexPriestley's Illustrations," which we have the best authority to say, will remove from their minds all libertarian ander prejudices, convince them "that the hypothesis of necessity is incontrovertibly true," and show them that all the Crombie, defenders of that hypothesis are in perfect harmony with themselves and with one another! cal Necessi A. M. |