liquors belongs. Selling fermented liquors, however, is trading, and trading is a social act. But the infringement complained of is not on the liberty of the seller, but on that of the buyer and consumer; since the state might just as well forbid him to drink wine, as purposely make it impossible for him to obtain it. The secretary, however, says: "I claim, as a citizen, a right to legislate whenever my social rights are invaded by the social act of another.' And now for the definition of these 'social rights.' 'If anything invades my social rights, certainly the traffic in strong drink does. It destroys my primary right of security, by constantly creating and stimulating social disorder. It invades my right of equality, by deriving a profit from the creation of a misery I am taxed to support. It impedes my right to free moral and intellectual development, by surrounding my path with dangers, and by weakening and demoralising society, from which I have a right to claim mutual aid and intercourse.' A theory of social rights,' the like of which probably never before found its way into distinct language; being nothing short of this-that it is the absolute social right of every individual, that every other individual shall act in every respect exactly as he ought; that whosoever fails thereof in the smallest particular, violates my social right, and entitles me to demand from the legislature the removal of the grievance. So monstrous a principle is far more dangerous than any single interference with liberty; there is no violation of liberty which it would not justify; it acknowledges no right to any freedom whatever, except, perhaps, to that of holding opinions in secret, without ever disclosing them; for the moment an opinion, which I consider noxious, passes any one's lips, it invades all the 'social rights' attributed to me by the Alliance. The doctrine ascribes to all mankind a vested interest in each other's moral, intellectual, and even physical perfection, to be defined by each claimant according to his own standard.

Mr Mill held the office long possessed by his father, that of Examiner of Indian Correspondence, India House. On the dissolution of the East India Company, 1859, he retired with a liberal provision, and, we may add, with universal respect.

REV. J. F. D. MAURICE, ETC.

In metaphysics and theology, and in practical efforts for the education of the working-classes, the REV. JOHN FREDERICK DENISON MAURICE has been conspicuous. He was born in 1805, the son of a Unitarian minister, and was educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge. He declined a Fellowship, not being able to declare himself a member of the Church of England; but he afterwards entered the church, and became Chaplain of Lincoln's Inn and Professor of Divinity in King's College, London. In consequence of what were considered heterodox opinions, Mr Maurice has had to vacate his professorial chair, but without forfeiting his popularity. Among the works of this author are-Lectures delivered at Queen's College, London, published in 1849; The Religions of the World and their Relations to Christianity, being the Boyle Lecture Sermons, 1846-47; Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy, reprinted from the Encyclopædia Metropolitana, three volumes, 1850-56; Christian Socialism, tracts and lectures by Maurice, Kingsley, and others, 1851; The Prophets and Kings of the Old Testament, 1853; The Word' Eternal' and the Punishment of the Wicked, a pamphlet, 1853; Lectures on Ecclesiastical History, and The Doctrine of Sacrifice, 1854; Learning and Working, six lectures, and The Religion of Rome, four lectures, 1855; Administrative Reform, a pamphlet, 1855; Plan of a Female College, 1855;

on

but devoted himself to science. In his twentyfourth year he edited Ferguson's Lectures Astronomy; and five years afterwards, in 1810, he commenced the Edinburgh Encyclopædia, which was continued at intervals until 1828, when it had reached eighteen volumes. In 1813, he published a treatise on New Philosophical Instruments, and he afterwards commenced the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal and the Edinburgh Journal of Science. Among his other works are-A Treatise on the Kaleidoscope, 1819; Notes to Robison's System of Mechanical Philosophy, 1822; Euler's Lectures and Life, 1823; a Treatise on Optics, 1831; Letters on Natural Magic, 1831; The Martyrs of Science (lives of Galileo, Tycho Brahé, and Kepler); Treatise on the Microscope; More Worlds than One, 1854; &c. The contributions of Sir David Brewster to scientific and literary journals would fill at least a score of volumes. His More Worlds than One is a reply to

749

the treatise ascribed to Professor Whewell, on the Plurality of Worlds. This subject had been fancifully treated by Fontenelle, and was a favourite source of speculation during the last century. That 'other planets circle other suns' was a popular belief, but one evidently destitute of scientific proof. Inductive philosophy disowned it, and it belonged only to the region of speculation. Dr Chalmers conceived that there were strong analogies in favour of such an opinion, while Mr Whewell, on the other hand, laboured to reduce such analogies to their true value. We cannot materialise them, or conceive of beings differing from our own knowledge and experience. Truth and falsehood, right and wrong, law and transgression, happiness and misery, reward and punishment, are the necessary elements of all that can interest us-of all that we can call government. To transfer these to Jupiter or to Sirius, is merely to imagine those bodies to be a sort of island of Formosa, or New Atlantis, or Utopia, or Platonic polity, or something of the kind. Sir David Brewster took the opposite side of this question, maintaining that even the sun may be inhabited by beings having pursuits and occupations similar to those on earth. The following is part of his argument respecting another planet:

sun.

[Is the Planet Jupiter Inhabited?]

In studying this subject, persons who have only a superficial knowledge of astronomy, though firmly believing in a plurality of worlds, have felt the force of certain objections, or rather difficulties, which naturally present themselves to the inquirer. The distance of Jupiter from the sun is so great, that the light and heat which he receives from that luminary are supposed to be incapable of sustaining the same animal and vegetable life which exists on the earth. If we consider the heat upon any planet as arising solely from the direct rays of the sun, the cold upon Jupiter must be very intense, and water could not exist upon its surface in a fluid state. Its rivers and its seas must be tracks and fields of ice. But the temperature of a planet depends upon other causes-upon the condition of its atmosphere, and upon the internal heat of its mass. The temperature of our own globe decreases as we rise in the atmosphere and approach the sun, and it increases as we descend into the bowels of the earth and go further from the In the first of these cases, the increase of heat as we approach the surface of the earth from a great height in a balloon, or from the summit of a lofty mountain is produced by its atmosphere; and in Jupiter the atmosphere may be so formed as to compensate to a certain extent the diminution in the direct heat of the sun arising from the great distance of the planet. In the second case, the internal heat of Jupiter may be such as to keep its rivers and seas in a fluid state, and maintain a temperature sufficiently genial to sustain the same animal and vegetable life which exists upon our own globe. These arrangements, however, if they are required, and have been adopted, cannot contribute to increase the feeble light which Jupiter receives from the sun; but in so far as the purposes of vision are concerned, an enlargement of the pupil of the eye, and an increased sensibility of the retina, would be amply sufficient to make the sun's light as brilliant as it is The feeble light reflected from the moons of Jupiter would then be equal to that which we derive from our own, even if we do not adopt the hypothesis, which we shall afterwards have occasion to mention, that a brilliant phosphorescent light may be excited in the satellites by the action of the solar rays. Another difficulty has presented itself, though very unnecessarily, in reference to the shortness of the day in Jupiter. A day of ten hours has been supposed insufficient to afford

to us.

that period of rest which is requisite for the renewal of our physical functions when exhausted with the labours of the day. This objection, however, has no force. Five hours of rest is surely sufficient for five hours of labour; and when the inhabitants of the temperate zone of our own globe reside, as many of them have done, for years in the arctic regions, where the length of the days and nights are so unusual, they have been able to perform their usual functions as well as in their native climates. A difficulty, however, of a more serious kind is presented by the great force of gravity upon so gigantic a planet as Jupiter. The stems of plants, the materials of buildings, the human body itself, would, it is imagined, be crushed by their own enormous weight. This apparently formidable objection will be removed by an accurate calculation of the force of gravity upon Jupiter, or of the relative weight of bodies on its surface. The mass of Jupiter is 1230 times greater than that of kind of matter, a man weighing 150 pounds on the the earth, so that if both planets consisted of the same surface of the earth would weigh 150 × 1200, or 180,000 pounds at a distance from Jupiter's centre is eleven times greater than that of the earth, the equal to the earth's radius. But as Jupiter's radius weight of bodies on his surface will be diminished in the ratio of the square of his radius-that is, in the ratio of 11 x 11, or 121 to 1. Consequently, if we divide 180,000 pounds by 121, we shall have 1487 pounds as the weight of a man of 150 pounds on the surface of Jupiter-that is, less than ten times his weight on the earth. But the matter of Jupiter is much lighter than the matter of our earth, in the ratio of 24 to 100, the numbers which represent the densities of the two planets, so that if we diminish 1487 pounds in the ratio of 24 to 100, or divide it by 417, we shall have 312 pounds as the weight of a man on Jupiter, who weighs on the earth only 150 pounds-that is, only double his weight-a difference which actually exists between many individuals on our own planet. A man, therefore, constituted like ourselves, could exist without inconvenience upon Jupiter; and plants, and trees, and buildings, such as occur on our own earth, could grow and stand secure in so far as the force of gravity is concerned.

Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, by DR JAMES C. PRICHARD, five volumes, 1836-47, and The Natural History of Man, one volume, 1843, open up a subject of interest and importance. Dr Prichard's investigations tend to confirm the belief that man is one in species, and to render it highly probable that all the varieties of this species are derived from one pair and a single locality on the earth. He conceives that the negro must be considered the primitive type of the human race-an idea that contrasts curiously with Milton's poetical conception of Adam, his 'fair, large front,' and 'eye sublime,' and 'hyacinthine locks,' and of Eve with his theory on the following grounds: 1st, That in her 'unadorned golden tresses.' Dr Prichard rests inferior species of animals any variations of colour are chiefly from dark to lighter, and this generally as an effect of domesticity and cultivation; 2dly, That we have instances of light varieties, as of the Albino among negroes, but never anything like the negro among Europeans; 3dly, That the dark races are better fitted by their organisation for the wild or natural state of life; and 4thly, That the nations or tribes lowest in the scale of actual civilisation have all kindred with the negro race. Of course, this conclusion must be conjectural: there is no possibility of arriving at any certainty on the subject.

In electricity and magnetism valuable discoveries have been made by PROFESSOR MICHAEL FARADAY,

of Buckland, in pursuing his researches and collecting specimens of organic remains, is brought out fully in this memoir, with an account of his exertions to procure the endowment of a Readership in Geology at Oxford, which he accomplished in 1819.

In the application of electricity to the arts, MR CHARLES WHEATSTONE-born at Gloucester in 1802 -has been highly distinguished. The idea of the electric telegraph had been propounded in the last century, but it was not practically realised until the year 1837. The three independent inventors are Mr Morse of the United States, M. Steinheil of Munich, and Mr Wheatstone. Of these, the last has shewn the greatest perseverance and skill in overcoming difficulties. To Mr Wheatstone we also owe the invention of the stereoscope-that beautiful accompaniment to art and nature. Professor Forbes says: "Although Mr Wheatstone's paper was published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1838, and the stereoscope became at that time known to men of science, it by no means attracted for a good many years the attention which it deserves. It is only since it received a convenient alteration of form-due, I believe, to Sir David Brewster-by the substitution of lenses for mirrors, that it has become the popular instrument which we now see it, but it is not more suggestive than it always was of the wonderful adaptations of the sense of sight.'

DR BUCKLAND-SIR CHARLES LYELL, ETC. Geology has had a host of discoverers and illustrators. One of the earliest of English geologists was MR WILLIAM SMITH, who published his Tabular View of the British Strata in 1790, and constructed a geological map of England in 1815. He had explored the whole country on foot. The first of the prize-medals of the Geological Society was awarded to that gentleman in 1831, 'in consideration,' as stated, of his being a great original discoverer in English geology, and especially for his having been the first in this country to discover and to teach the identification of strata, and to determine their succession by means of their imbedded fossils.'* The REV. DR BUCKLAND (17841856), by his Vindiciae Geologica, 1820, and Reliquiae Diluviance, 1823, and by various contributions to the Geological Society, awakened public interest to the claims of this science, although he adhered to the old hypothesis of the universality of the deluge, which he abandoned in his Bridgewater Treatise of 1836. His Geology and Mineralogy was reprinted in 1858, with additions by Professors Owen and Phillips, and a memoir of the author by his son,

* This, however, had been clearly indicated more than a century before by the mathematician and natural philosopher, DR ROBERT HOOKE (1635-1703). In a lecture dated 1688, and published in Hooke's posthumous works, there occurs this striking prophetic passage: 'However trivial a thing a rotten shell may appear to some, yet these monuments of nature are more certain tokens of antiquity than coins or medals, since the best of those may be counterfeited or made by art and design; and though it must be granted that it is very difficult to read them-the records of nature-and to raise a chronology out of them, and to state the intervals of time wherein such or such catastrophe and mutations have happened, yet it is not impossible.'-See Lyell's Principles, vol. i., in which the history of geological science is traced. Also Conybeare's Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales.

Dr Buckland.

His invaluable museum he bequeathed to the university. It may be noted, also, that the glacial theory, illustrated by Agassiz and Professor James Forbes, was first promulgated by Dr Buckland, who travelled over the north of England and the wilds of Scotland for proofs of glacial action. Sir Robert Peel rewarded the labours of this ardent man of science by procuring his appointment to the deanery of Westminster. In its now revised and improved form, with additional plates of organic remains, Buckland's Geology and Mineralogy is the best general work on this interesting study. Previous to its first publication, Mr, now SIR CHARLES LYELL, had published Principles of Geology, being an Attempt to Explain the former Changes of the Earth's Surface by a Reference to Causes now in Operation, two volumes, 1830-32. Additions and corrections have been made from time to time, and the eighth edition of the Principles, entirely revised, 1850, is a very complete and interesting work. But though introducing recent facts, Sir Charles still adheres to his original theory, that the forces now operating upon and beneath the earth's surface, are the same both in kind and degree with those which, at remote epochs, have worked out geological revolutions; or, in other words, that we may dispense with sudden, violent, and general catastrophes, and regard the ancient and present fluctuations of the organic and inorganic world as belonging to one continuous and uniform series of events. In 1838 Sir Charles published his Elements of Geology, since enlarged to two volumes. He is author also of Travels in North America, with Geological Observations on the United States, Canada, and Nova Scotia, two volumes, 1845, and Second Visit to the United States of America in 1845, two volumes, 1849.

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These are agreeable as well as instructive volumes, for Sir Charles is an accomplished literary artist, without betraying art in his composition.

[Geology Compared to History.]

We often discover with surprise, on looking back into the chronicles of nations, how the fortune of some battle has influenced the fate of millions of our contemporaries, when it has long been forgotten by the mass of the population. With this remote event, we may find inseparably connected the geographical boundaries of a great state, the language now spoken by the inhabitants, their peculiar manners, laws, and religious opinions. But far more astonishing and unexpected are the connections brought to light, when we carry back our researches into the history of nature. The form of a coast, the configuration of the interior of a country, the existence and extent of lakes, valleys, and mountains can often be traced to the former prevalence of earthquakes and volcanoes in regions which have long been undisturbed. To these remote convulsions, the present fertility of some districts, the sterile character of others, the elevation of land above the sea, the climate, and various peculiarities, may be distinctly referred. On the other hand, many distinguishing features of the surface may often be ascribed to the operation, at a remote era, of slow and tranquil causes-to the gradual deposition of sediment in a lake or in the ocean, or to the prolific increase of testacea and corals.

To select another example; we find in certain localities subterranean deposits of coal, consisting of vegetable matter formerly drifted into seas and lakes. These scas and lakes have since been filled up; the lands whereon the forests grew have disappeared or changed their form; the rivers and currents which floated the vegetable masses can no longer be traced; and the plants belonged to species which for ages have passed away from the surface of our planet. Yet the commercial prosperity and numerical strength of a nation may now be mainly dependent on the local distribution of fuel determined by that ancient state of things.

Geology is intimately related to almost all the physical sciences, as history is to the moral. A historian should, if possible, be at once profoundly acquainted with ethics, politics, jurisprudence, the military art, theology; in a word, with all branches of knowledge by which any insight into human affairs, or into the moral and intellectual nature of man, can be obtained. It would be no less desirable that a geologist should be well versed in chemistry, natural philosophy, mineralogy, zoology, comparative anatomy, botany; in short, in every science relating to organic and inorganic nature. With these accomplishments, the historian and geologist would rarely fail to draw correct philosophical conclusions from the various monuments transmitted to them of former occurrences. They would know to what combination of causes analogous effects were referrible, and they would often be enabled to supply, by inference, information concerning many events unrecorded in the defective archives of former ages. But as such extensive acquisitions are scarcely within the reach of any individual, it is necessary that men who have devoted their lives to different departments should unite their efforts; and as the historian receives assistance from the antiquary, and from those who have cultivated different branches of moral and political science, so the geologist should avail himself of the aid of many naturalists, and particularly of those who have studied the fossil remains of lost species of animals and plants.

The analogy, however, of the monuments consulted in geology, and those available in history, extends no further than to one class of historical monuments-those which may be said to be undesignedly commemorative of former events. The canoes, for example, and stone hatchets found in our peat-bogs, afford an insight into

the rude arts and manners of the earliest inhabitants of our island; the buried coin fixes the date of the reign of some Roman emperor; the ancient encampment indicates the districts once occupied by invading armies, and the former method of constructing military defences; the Egyptian mummies throw light on the art of embalming, the rites of sepulture, or the average stature of the human race in ancient Egypt. This class of memorials yields to no other in authenticity, but it constitutes a small part only of the resources on which the historian relies, whereas in geology it forms the only kind of evidence which is at our command. For this reason we must not expect to obtain a full and connected account of any series of events beyond the reach of history. But the testimony of geological monuments, if frequently imperfect, possesses at least the advantage of being free from all suspicion of misrepresentation. We may be deceived in the inferences which we draw, in the same manner as we often mistake the nature and import of phenomena observed in the daily course of nature, but our liability to err is confined to the interpretation, and, if this be correct, our information is certain.

[The Great Earthquake of Lisbon in 1755.]

In no part of the volcanic region of Southern Europe has so tremendous an earthquake occurred in modern times as that which began on the 1st of November 1755 at Lisbon. A sound of thunder was heard underground, and immediately afterwards a violent shock threw down the greater part of that city. In the course of about six minutes, sixty thousand persons perished. The sea first retired and laid the bar dry; it then rolled in, rising fifty feet above its ordinary level. The mountains of Arrabida, Estrella, Julio, Marvan, and Cintra, being some of the largest in Portugal, were impetuously shaken, as it were, from their very foundations; and some of them opened at their summits, which were split and rent in a wonderful manner, huge masses of them being thrown down into the subjacent valleys. Flames are related to have issued from these mountains, which are supposed to have been electric; they are also said to have smoked; but vast clouds of dust may have given rise to this appearance.

The most extraordinary circumstance which occurred at Lisbon during the catastrophe, was the subsidence of a new quay, built entirely of marble at an immense expense. A great concourse of people had collected there for safety, as a spot where they might be beyond the reach of falling ruins; but suddenly the quay sank down with all the people on it, and not one of the dead bodies ever floated to the surface. A great number of boats and small vessels anchored near it, all full of people, were swallowed up as in a whirlpool. No fragments of these wrecks ever rose again to the surface, and the water in the place where the quay had stood is stated, in many accounts, to be unfathomable; but Whitehurst says he ascertained it to be one hundred fathoms.

In this case, we must either suppose that a certain tract sank down into a subterranean hollow, which would cause a 'fault' in the strata to the depth of six hundred feet, or we may infer, as some have done, from the entire disappearance of the substances engulfed, that a chasm opened and closed again. Yet in adopting this latter hypothesis, we must suppose that the upper part of the chasm, to the depth of one hundred fathoms, remained open after the shock. According to the observations made at Lisbon, in 1837, by Mr Sharpe, the destroying effects of this earthquake were confined to the tertiary strata, and were most violent on the blue clay, on which the lower part of the city is constructed. Not a building, he says, on the secondary limestone or the basalt was injured.

The great area over which this Lisbon carthquake

extended, is very remarkable. The movement was most violent in Spain, Portugal, and the north of Africa; but nearly the whole of Europe, and even the West Indies, felt the shock on the same day. A seaport called St Ubes, about twenty miles south of Lisbon, was engulfed. At Algiers and Fez, in Africa, the agitation of the earth was equally violent; and at the distance of eight leagues from Morocco, a village with the inhabitants, to the number of about eight or ten thousand persons, together with all their cattle, were swallowed up. Soon after, the earth closed again over them.

The shock was felt at sea, on the deck of a ship to the west of Lisbon, and produced very much the same sensation as on dry land. Off St Lucar, the captain of the ship Nancy felt his vessel so violently shaken, that he thought she had struck the ground, but, on heaving the lead, found a great depth of water. Captain Clark, from Denia, in latitude 36° 24' N., between nine and ten in the morning, had his ship shaken and strained as if she had struck upon a rock. Another ship, forty leagues west of St Vincent, experienced so violent a concussion, that the men were thrown a foot and a half perpendicularly up from the deck. In Antigua and Barbadoes, as also in Norway, Sweden, Germany, Holland, Corsica, Switzerland, and Italy, tremors and slight oscillations of the ground were felt.

The agitation of lakes, rivers, and springs in Great Britain was remarkable. At Loch Lomond, in Scotland, for example, the water, without the least apparent cause, rose against its banks, and then subsided below its usual level. The greatest perpendicular height of this swell was two feet four inches. It is said that the movement of this earthquake was undulatory, and that it travelled at the rate of twenty miles minute. A great wave swept over the coast of Spain, and is said to have been sixty feet high at Cadiz. At Tangier, in Africa, it rose and fell eighteen times on the coast; at Funchal, in Madeira, it rose full fifteen feet perpendicular above high-water mark, although the tide, which ebbs and flows there seven feet, was then at half-ebb. Besides entering the city and committing great havoc, it overflowed other seaports in the island. At Kinsale, in Ireland, a body of water rushed into the harbour, whirled round several vessels, and poured into the market-place.

It was before stated that the sea first retired at Lisbon; and this retreat of the ocean from the shore at the commencement of an earthquake, and its subsequent return in a violent wave, is a common occurrence. In order to account for the phenomenon, Michell imagined a subsidence at the bottom of the sea from the giving way of the roof of some cavity, in consequence of a vacuum produced by the condensation of steam. Such condensation, he observes, might be the first effect of the introduction of a large body of water into fissures and cavities already filled with steam, before there had been sufficient time for the heat of the incandescent lava to turn so large a supply of water into steam, which, being soon accomplished, causes a greater explosion.

Sir Charles Lyell is a native of the county of Forfar, son of a landed proprietor there, and was born in 1797. He studied at Exeter College, Oxford, and afterwards was called to the bar. In 1836 he was elected President of the Geological Society, and the same honour was again conferred upon him in 1850-51. He was knighted in 1848.

Geological Notes and Sections were published in 1830 by SIR HENRY THOMAS DE LA BECHE (17961855), and in 1832 a Manual of Geology. But his most valuable work is How to Observe: Geology, 1835. In 1851 Sir Henry published another work of the same kind, The Geological Observer. DR GIDEON ALGERNON MANTELL (1788-1852), an English

great work of Cuvier and Brongniart on the Geology of the Environs of Paris, and described also many of the organic remains of the chalk. Dr Mantell was the original demonstrator of the fresh-water origin of the mass of Wealden beds, and the discoverer of the monster reptile Iguanodon, and other colossal allies. This eminent palæontologist was author of two popular works-The Medals of Creation, and The Wonders of Geology. DR JOHN PYE SMITH (1774-1857), in his work On the Relation between the Holy Scriptures and some parts of Geological Science, 1839, and the distinguished American geologist, DR EDWARD HITCHCOCK, in his Elementary Geology, 1841, anticipated the views of Hugh Miller and others as to the interpretation of the Mosaic account of the creation and deluge-the latter being local, not universal. With respect to the deluge, Dr Pye Smith forcibly remarks: All land-animals having their geographical regions, to which their constitutional natures are congenial-many of them being unable to live in any other situation-we cannot represent to ourselves the idea of their being brought into one small spot from the polar regions, the torrid zone, and all the other climates of Asia, Africa, Europe, and America, Australia and the thousands of islands-their preservation and provision, and the final disposal of them-without bringing up the idea of miracles more stupendous than any that are recorded in Scripture.'

SIR RODERICK I. MURCHISON.

SIR RODERICK IMPEY MURCHISON has simplified and consolidated the science of geology, and proved one of its most indefatigable explorers. In the districts of Hereford, Radnor, and Shropshire, large masses of gray-coloured strata rise out from beneath the Old Red Sandstone; and these rocks contain fossils differing from any which were known in the upper deposits. Sir Roderick began to