JUNE XXVIII.

ECLIPSES OF THE SUN AND MOON.

In this enlightened age, it is highly indecorous for any one to be ignorant of the phenomena of an eclipse. From a want of this knowledge have proceeded the superstitious fears which so often agitate the minds of the ignorant during an eclipse of the sun or moon; while, if the cause was understood, the folly of shutting up wells at such a time, for fear the water should acquire a noxious quality, and the absurdity of using other precautions, would be manifest: whatever men do under the influence of superstition is a strong proof of their ignorance and impiety. Let us, then, inquire into the true cause of such astonishing effects; our thirst for knowledge will be gratified, and we shall find fresh occasion to glorify our great Creator.

An eclipse of the sun is a natural effect caused by the shadow of the moon projected on the earth. But this can only take place when the moon, which is an opaque body, is nearly in a direct line between the sun and the earth; in this case the moon, either partially or entirely, intercepts our view of the sun; the one is called a total, the other a partial, eclipse. Thus the solar eclipse is nothing more than the situation in which the earth is placed when the shadow of the moon falls upon it, and consequently, properly speaking, it is only an eclipse of that part of the earth where the moon's shadow falls.

Hence we learn that the sun is not really darkened, but is only for a short space concealed from us by the intervention of another body, whilst he still blazes in all his splendour; and the only change that takes place is, that the rays emanating from him cannot reach the earth, because the moon intercepts their progress. Hence also a solar eclipse is never visible at the same time from every part of the earth: for the eclipse could not be perceptible from all places in the hemisphere at the same time, unless the sun had effectively lost all his light; on the contrary, it appears greater in some countries than in others; and there are countries where it is not visible at all.

The moon not only at times darkens the earth, but the earth also casts its shadow upon the moon, and thus partially or totally intercepts the rays of the sun, by which an eclipse of the moon is occasioned. This can only happen when the moon is on one side of the earth and the sun on the opposite side, consequently, at the time when the moon is at the full; and as this planet is really obscured by the earth's shadow, the eclipse may be perceived at the same time from every part of one hemisphere of our globe.

Should it be asked, Of what use are the lunar and solar eclipses? I would answer, to those who do not measure the utility of natural things merely by their sensible benefits, they are of very great use. By their means we determine the true position and distance of towns and countries, and trace with exactness maps of the most remote regions; they also tend to confirm chronology, and direct the naviga

tor, by informing him how far he is distant from the east or from the west. Unimportant as these advantages may appear to some, they are of the greatest utility, and contribute in part to the happiness of mankind.

Whenever we witness an eclipse of the sun or moon, let us reflect upon the awful events which will take place on the last day. What terror will seize the hearts of men when they shall see the sun darkened, and the moon lose her light; when the elements shall melt with fervent heat, and the heavens pass away with fearful sound, as of the rushing of mighty waters! May we then be found fit to dwell in that glorious habitation, where the sun and the moon shall no longer be necessary!

JUNE XXIX.

THE STALK OF WHEAT.

We see the young corn daily springing up, and the tender ears ripening insensibly, till in a few weeks they will afford us nourishing bread, a blessing which the bountiful hand of Nature has bestowed upon the labours of man. Let us for a while cast our eyes over a field of wheat, and endeavour to enumerate the millions of ears which wave over the surface; and then let us reflect upon the wisdom of those laws which cause such abundance to bless the earth. What preparations are necessary to procure us nourishment so useful and sweet; and what changes must take place before the ear could be formed! It is now nearly ready to reward our care with its nourishing fruits, and invites us to meditate upon its structure.

When a grain of wheat has been some time in the ground it shoots up a stalk, which rises perpendicularly, but advances very gradually, to favour the ripening of the grain. By its growing so high the grain is preserved from the moisture of the earth, which would rot it; and the height of the stalk also contributes to perfect the juices that ascend from the root: and its round form favours this operation, by admitting the heat to penetrate every part of the stem. It seems wonderful that so delicate a stalk should support itself, and bear so many grains, without sinking beneath its burden, or being beat down by each blast of wind; but nature has wisely provided against all these inconveniencies in furnishing it with four very strong knots, which strengthen it without lessening its pliability. The structure of the knots evinces much wisdom; like a fine sieve, they are full of very small pores, through which the sap rises and the heat penetrates. The stalk is liable to be beat down by tempests and heavy showers, but its suppleness secures it from injury; it is flexible enough to bend without breaking; if it was more stiff it might be shivered by the storm, and would be unfit for straw.

From the principal stalk others spring up; they are not so high,

and bear leaves, which, collecting the drops of dew and rain, supply the plant with those nutritious juices so necessary to its support; whilst the most essential part of the plant, the ear, is very gradually formed. To preserve the tender sprouts from the dangers and accidents which might destroy them, the first moment of their appearance, the two upper leaves of the stalk unite closely, to preserve the ears, as well as furnish them with the necessary juices. As soon as the stalk is sufficiently formed to be able of itself to supply the grain with juices, the leaves gradually dry, that nothing may be taken from the fruit, and that the root may have nothing to support which is useless. When these leaves are removed, the young ear waves gracefully in unveiled beauty, and its beard serves it both as an ornament, and as a defence against birds and insects. Refreshed with gentle rains, it flourishes, and inspires the husbandman with the most pleasing hopes; it ripens from day to day, till at length, bowing beneath the weight of its riches, its head falls beneath the sickle, and the farmer joyfully gathers the golden sheaves.

Here we discover new marks of the wisdom and all-beneficent power of God, ever operating for the good of man. How wonderful is the structure of a single stalk of wheat! and what greater proof can we desire of the goodness of our Creator? Open your eyes, ye that are indifferent, and see the fields wide waving round with the choicest gifts of heaven, and you will no longer withhold the tribute of praise and of gratitude to your all-bountiful Father; remembering, that he who can view a field of corn without his soul expanding with gratitude, or who does not feel rejoiced at the sight, is unworthy of the bread it so abundantly furnishes. Let us think as men endowed with minds capable of that most exquisite of all pleasures, the discovering the traces of an infinitely good and powerful Being in all the works of nature; by this we shall raise ourselves above the condition of brutes, and approach nearer to the angels of light.

JUNE XXX.

THE BLIGHT.

Prodigious swarms of little insects, entirely covering the tops, stalks, and leaves of plants, occasion what is usually called the blight. These insects are as numerous in their varieties as the species of plants they infest, and they merit our attention most particularly from the peculiarities which they exhibit. They not only lay eggs, but they also bring forth their young alive; being both oviparous and viviparous. Whilst the fine weather continues, the young ones issue from the parent insect alive, and completely formed, because at that time the plants can afford them sufficient nutriment: but towards the end of autumn they lay eggs, which are not hatched till the following

spring; for if they came to life sooner, they would perish for want of nourishment.

At the time when the female insects begin to lay their eggs, the males are observed to appear, which seem to indicate that their existence was not necessary before that period; and this conjecture is confirmed by the experiments which have been made upon these insects. If we take one at the instant of its birth, and enclose it by itself within a glass, though secluded from all communication with other insects, it will produce a young one as soon as it has acquired a certain degree of growth, and in a few weeks it will be surrounded by a numerous family. If the experiment be repeated upon one of its young, the result will yet be the same, though continued for many generations; which proves that these creatures engender of themselves without copulation.

Another singularity worthy of observation is, that in some species of insects the males have wings, whilst the females are destitute of them but in the class of which we now treating, both sexes are alike in that respect; being either both furnished with wings, or both destitute of them. Those which have wings are so extremely small, that they are seen walking upon those that have none. This remarkable instance of the singularities of nature, so widely differing from the common rules, and where at the same time so much wisdom is observable, leads us naturally to ask, Whence these peculiarities in nature proceed, and why has the Creator thought fit sometimes to deviate from the accustomed laws? To answer these questions in a satisfactory manner we ought to be able at once to embrace the whole of the creation, to comprehend all the parts of the vast kingdom of nature, with all their uniting links, and justly to appreciate in what and how far any thing would be advantageous or prejudicial to the whole. But from the limited nature of our faculties, such an extensive range of knowledge is denied us, and we must be satisfied with some general reasoning which may in some degree resolve our doubts, and answer the question to our satisfaction.

In the first place, by these singularities in the productions of nature, we see the command which God has over her: He is the supreme Governor, who assigns to each being the laws which he is to observe; and he who has the power to make has also the right to suspend laws, and to make whatever exceptions he pleases. Secondly, we every where find in nature a great variety of objects which give us occasion to rejoice in their contemplation, and to admire the glory of the Creator. It is easy to perceive how much these exceptions to general rules increase the variety we observe, and consequently the pleasure of the observer, as well as his admiration for the Author of nature. In the third place, experience teaches us that the objects which we daily see become familiar, and the often-repeated impression renders us less attentive to their beauties. The magnificent spectacle of nature does not always interest us, because we acquire the habit of lightly passing over those things which we continually witness. Thus, each singularity, each unusual appearance, by arresting our

attention, tends to invite us to contemplate, as well as to call forth our admiration of, the works of God. And lastly, we may consider the singularities of the physical world, so far from diminishing the perfection of the whole, enter into the plan of the Divine Wisdom, and together with the singularities of the moral world, are under the direction of an all-wise Being, who governs all for endless glory, perfection, and happiness.

JULY I.

FOREIGN PLANTS.

All our different sorts of corn, and many of our vegetables, derive their origin from foreign countries, generally those of a higher temperature than ours. The greatest part of them came from Italy; Italy obtained them from Greece; and Greece from the East. When America was discovered, many plants and flowers were found that till then were unknown, and have since been transplanted to Europe, where they have been cultivated with great success: and the English still take great pains to cultivate in their own country many different plants from North America.

Most of the different species of corn, which form the best kind of nutriment for men and animals, are graminous; and though they are now completely naturalized to our soil, and the fields are covered with them, they are of foreign growth. Rye and wheat are indigenous in Little Tartary and Siberia, where they still grow without culture. From what country barley and oats were first introduced we are ignorant; but we may be assured they are not natives of this climate, or it would not be necessary to cultivate them. Rice is the produce of Ethiopia, whence it was carried into the East, and afterward to Italy. Since the commencement of the eighteenth century, it has been cultivated in America, and we now import from that country great quantities of this useful grain. Buckwheat originally came from Asia; it was introduced into Italy at the time of the crusades, from whence it was brought to Germany.

Most of our pulse and herbs have also a foreign origin. Borage comes from Syria; cresses from Crete; the cauliflower from Cyprus; and asparagus from Asia. We are indebted to Italy for the chervil; to Portugal and Spain for the dill-seed; to the Canary Islands for fennel; and to Egypt for aniseed and parsley. Garlic is a production of the East; shallots come from Siberia, and the horse-radish from China. We are indebted to the East Indies for kidney beans; to Astracan for pompions; to France for lentils; and to Brazil for potatoes. The Spaniards brought the tobacco plant from Cuba, where the finest species of tobacco is found.

Some of our most beautiful flowers are also the produce of foreign countries, Jessamine comes from the East Indies; the elder-tree