to obtain graces and temporal favors. They are either blessed objects (holy water, oil, salt, etc.), or certain rites or ceremonies (e.g., exorcisms, blessings). The Church in its benedictions prays that God, who is wont to make use of external objects to communicate His gifts, may by these means bestow His graces and favors upon us. Thus sacramentals have, as their name implies, a certain resemblance to the sacraments. But their efficacy differs from that of the sacraments chiefly in this that while the sacraments in virtue of their divine institution, if duly administered and worthily received, have an infallible effect (ex opere operato) the sacramentals, on the other hand, do not operate of their own power, but only in virtue of the prayers of the Church (ex opere operantis).

157. On the part of the recipient of the sacraments certain conditions or dispositions are necessary in order that the reception may be valid, and due preparation that it may be fruitful.

1. Certain conditions are necessary for the valid reception. (a) One must be still in the state of probation here on earth: for the sacraments are a means of salvation, and, consequently, only for those who are still on the way to salvation, not for those who have finished their pilgrimage. (b) Baptism is a necessary condition for the valid reception of the other sacraments. The sacraments are instituted only for those who belong to the visible body of the Church; but by baptism alone we become members of the Church. Moreover, the other sacraments are instituted either to increase or to restore

the supernatural life of the soul. But it can neither be increased nor restored unless it has been once conferred; but the supernatural life is ordinarily conferred in baptism. (c) In the case of adults, moreover, the intention of receiving the sacraments is necessary. For, since rational man can be saved only by his own will, the means of salvation cannot be applied to him unless he choose to accept them. Therefore baptism administered to one against his will would not be a sacrament. In the case of children and idiots such an intention is not required, as is manifest from the practice of the Church in administering certain sacraments to them.

2. Certain preparations are, moreover, required that the reception of the sacraments may be worthy and fruitful. Despite the validity of a sacrament its effects may be completely or partly frustrated either by the existence of some obstacle or by the absence of that disposition which renders the soul capable of receiving grace. Now, preparation is necessary to remove such obstacles, or to produce such disposition. The necessity of preparation follows, moreover, from what has been said (149) in regard to preparation for justification in general. We must ourselves co-operate in the work of our salvation, and render ourselves susceptible of the influence of grace.

158. On the part of the minister of the sacramen's certain conditions are necessary in order that their administration may be valid and licit.

1. For the valid administration of a sacrament is required in the minister the intention to do what the Church does (Florent. decret. pro Armen.). The form of the sacrament is not only significant, but also effective. But it cannot be effective without the proper intention. A priest, for instance, who incidentally, and without intending to consecrate, pronounces the words of consecration in the presence of bread and wine does not thereby consummate the sacrament. But if, on the other hand, the minister intends to do what the Church does by that rite, or to perform the sacred function in accordance with the usage of the Church, he has, as a matter of course, the intention that the rite should have its full efficacy, and, therefore, validly performs the sacrament.

For the valid administration of a sacrament neither sanctity, nor virtue, nor even faith, is necessary on the part of the minister. The Donatists in the fourth century required positive worthiness, and certam Asiatic and African bishops in the third century required at least faith in the minister. But both these opinions were condemned by the Church as heretical; and justly, for man does not administer the sacraments by his own power, but by the power of Christ, whose instrument he is. But he becomes the instrument of Christ by the sole intention to do what the Church does.

2. For the licit administration of a sacrament it is required that the minister should be in the state of grace. For, if

holy things are to be treated holily, this is most emphatically the case in regard to the sacraments, which are the means of applying to us the merits of Christ crucified. Moreover, the minister of the sacraments represents the person of Christ, and is His instrument; but he cannot fitly and worthily represent Christ or be His instrument if he is in the state of mortal sin.

Hence it is lawful only in the case of extreme necessity to use the ministry of a priest who is notoriously unworthy, particularly if he is suspended, deposed, or excommunicated.

159. Christ instituted seven sacraments.

1. That there are seven, and only seven, sacraments instituted by Christ has been declared by the Council of Trent (Sess. VII. de sac. in gen. can. 1) against the heretics of the sixteenth century, who admitted-some only two sacraments (baptism and the Eucharist), others three (including penance). The Council of Florence (decret. pro Armen.) had already defined the number of the sacraments.

2. It is certain that the doctrine of the seven sacraments was universal in the Church in the twelfth century; for from that time we possess full treatises upon each of the seven. Moreover, it is certain that even at an earlier date those very sacraments which were rejected by the reformers had been considered true sacraments. Synods of the seventh century (e.g., that of Rheims, A.D. 630 or 625) issued directions for their administration. Hence it follows that this doctrine is handed down from apostolic times; for it would have been impossible to introduce innovations in a matter of such importance without great opposition; of which, doubtless, some mention would be found in history.

3. It is no less certain that those Oriental sects who fell off from the Church in the earliest times hold the dogma of tle seven sacraments. Whence we must infer that at the time of their separation this doctrine prevailed in the Church, as they certainly would not have subsequently accepted it from the Church.

God could have instituted fewer or more sacraments. However, certain reasons may be assigned why He instituted precisely these seven; for these are sufficient for the existence and continuance of supernatural life. (a) Baptism, the sacrament of regeneration, was instituted to confer the spiritual life itself together with those supernatural faculties necessary for its functions, just as natural generation confers on us our natural life and its faculties. (b) Confirmation strengthens the spiritual life and bestows fortitude and perseverance in the spiritual combat. (c) The Holy Eucharist supplies the spiritual nutriment which is necessary to sustain our supernatural life. (d) Penance restores the supernatural life, if lost by sin. (e) Extreme Unction heals the soul from the effects of sin and gives strength and consolation in the last struggle. (ƒ) Holy Orders enable the ministers of Christ's Church to discharge their duties worthily, and through them secures for the faithful those spiritual treasures committed by Christ to His Church. (g) Matrimony brings God's blessing upon the marriage union, to enable parents to bring up their children for the kingdom of God.

All the seven sacraments, as the Church teaches (Trid. Sess. VII. de sac. in gen. can. 1), were instituted by Christ. For the rest, it is evident that God alone can attach invisible grace to a visible sign. Christ, moreover, instituted the sacraments directly, not through His apostles; for the apostles are the dispensers, not the authors, of the mysteries of God (1 Cor. iv. 1).

160. The sacraments are divided (1) into sacraments of the living and of the dead; (2) into such as imprint, and such as do not imprint, a character on the soul of the recipient.

1. The sacraments are divided, according to the disposition required in the recipient, into sacraments of the living and of the dead. Baptism and penance are sacraments of the dead, because they may be received by those who are spiritually dead by mortal sin. If the person who receives them is already in the state of grace they increase the supernatural life already existing (148). The sacraments of the living are those which presuppose the existence of the supernatural life in the soul, and whose object is to increase it. Such are confirmation, Holy Eucharist, extreme unction, holy orders, and matrimony.

The sacraments of the living, however, may, according to the common opinion, in some cases confer sanctifying grace itself, or first grace-as, for instance, in the case of one who believes himself to be in the state of grace, but is not, and receives one of those sacraments with only imperfect contrition. His imperfect contrition will in that case remove the obstacle to the efficacy of the sacrament, which will, consequently, produce its effect-sanctifying grace.

2. Certain sacraments cannot be repeated, while others may be received more than once. The former are baptism, confirmation, and holy orders. The reason why these cannot be repeated is, as the Council of Trent (Sess. VII. de sac in gen. can. 9) and the Council of Florence (decret. pro Armen.) teach, because they imprint a permanent and indelible character upon the soul. This mark confers upon the recipient a special dignity, as well as the power to exercise the functions peculiar to that dignity. In baptism we become members of Christ's kingdom; by confirmation soldiers of Christ; by holy orders leaders of Christ's followers. The fathers speak of the sacraments above mentioned as imprinting a seal upon the soul (cf. S. Aug. tract. in Joan. n. 16). This seal is inde ible, and continues to exist not only during this life, but also after death, to the glory of the blessed and the confusion of the reprobate.

If we consider the sacraments according to their necessity, we find that baptism is necessary for all, penance for those who after baptism have fallen into grievous sin, and holy orders for the Church as such. In dignity, however, the Holy Eucharist surpasses all the

others.

II. THE SACRAMENTS IN PARTICULAR.

A. Baptism.

161. Baptism is characterized as a distinct sacrament of the New Law by its effects, its matter and form, and its divine institution.

1. Baptism, according to the Roman Catechism, is the sacrament of regeneration by water and the word of life. It is called the sacrament of regeneration (cf. John iii. 5) with reference to its effects, which distinguish it from all other sacraments. By water and the word of life are expressed the matter and form, or the outward sign of the sacrament.

2. The essential remote matter is real, or natural water. For, when Christ Our Lord says that a man must be born again of water and the Holy Ghost (John iii. 5), He understands natural water, as we see from the fact that the apostles baptized with natural water (Acts iii. 36), and from the usage