1 Johann Gottfried von Herder, born 1744, died 1803, as general superintendent in Weimar. Among his numerous works we may mention his: Werke zur Religion und Theologie, Stuttg. and Tub. 1827-30. 18 voll. Though Herder did not publish a compendium of systematic theology, he exerted, by his enlightened views of religion and truly pious tendency, a considerable influence upon theology. Among his Theological works, the following have a special reference to the subject in question: Briefe über das Studium der Theologie, Brief 29 ss. Christliche Schriften (vom Elöser der Menschen; von Gottes Sohn, der Welt Heiland; vom Geist des Christenthums; von Religion, Lehrmeinungen und Gebräuchen.)-The theological views of Herder are given in a collective form in: J. G. von Herders Dogmatik, aus dessen Schriften dargestellt und mit litterarischen und kritischen Anmerkungen versehn von einem Freunde der Herder'schen Gnosis, (Augusti?) Jena, 1805. 8.

2 Friedrich Jacobi, born 1743, was, from the year 1804, chairman of the academy of science in Munich, died 1819. His entire works were published Leipz. 1812. 6 voll. his correspondence Leipz. 1825-27. 2 voll. Compare his: Von den göttlichen Dingen und ihrer Offenbarung, Leipz. 1811. and Kuhn, J., Jacobi und die Philosophie seiner Zeit, Mainz, 1824.

3 Schleiermacher acknowledged that he derived his first impressions from Jacobi (Baumgarten) Crusius i. p. 468); Schelling also exerted some influence upon him. On the other hand, De Wette adhered to the principles of Fries, who endeavoured to complete the philosophy of Kant after the example of Jacobi.

4 W. M. Leberecht de Wette, born 1780, professor of theology in the university of Berlin from the year 1810 to 1819, is now professor of theology in the university of Basle. His theological opinions are developed in his: Erläuterungen zum Lehrbuch der Dogmatik, über Religion und Theologie, Berlin 1821.—Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmatik in ihrer historischen Entwickelung, Berl. 1821. 2 voll. Edit, 3rd. 1820.-Christliche Sittenlehre, ibid. 1819-24. 3. voll. 8°. The following are written in a popular style: Ueber die religion, ihr Wessen, ihre Ershcheinungsformen und ihren Einfluss auf das Leben (a course of public lectures), Berl. 1827. 8.-Theodor oder des Zweiflers Weihe 1821-28. 2 voll.

Sermons.

5 Friedrich Schleiermacher, born 1768, died 1834, as professor of theology in the university of Berlin.-Among his works we mention: Ueber Religion. Reden au die Gebildeten unter ihren Verächtern, Berlin, 1799.-Darstellung des theologischen Studiums, Berlin 1811. 30.-Der christliche Glaube, nach den Grundsätzen der evangelischen Kirche im Zusammenhange dargestellt, Berl. 1821. 2 vol. 1830. 2 voll.-Sermons. (An edition of his entire works was commenced 1834, and is still in course of publication.) Comp. Braniss, H., über Schleiermachers Glaubenslehre, Leipz. 1835. Rosenkranz, K., Kritik der Schleiermacher'schen Glaubenslehre, Köningsb. 1836. BaumgartenCrusius, Schleiermachers Denkart und Verdienst, Jena 1834. Lücke (Studien und Kritiken, 1834. part 4.)

ATTEMPTS AT REACTION.

$281.

PRACTICAL PIETY AND MODERN

THEOLOGY.

But this reconciliation, which could be appreciated only by the educated classes of society, did not meet the wants of Christians at large. Though the conflict between Rationalism and Supranaturalism at first appeared to be confined to theologians only, a general desire after more substantial spiritual food soon manifested itself among the people, who for some time past had grown indifferent to their religious interests, but had been aroused by the signs of the times. Instead of that timid Supranaturalism of the schools which was itself affected by Rationalism, the ancient faith boldly raised its voice against the evils of modern civilization. Claus Harms, on the occasion of the centenary of the German Reformation, published a number of theses, in which he proclaimed the necessity of returning to the old Lutheran faith and proved that the religion of reason was worth

less.1 Sartorius pointed out the close relation existing between Rationalism and Romanism.2 The controversy was carried on with much violence, both parties endeavouring to denounce each other.3 It was owing to the prevailing practical tendency of the age which manifested itself in the spread of the Scriptures and of religion, and in the founding of religious societies, that the consequence of these conflicts was less serious than might have been expected. Nor were the interests of scientific theology neglected; on the contrary, it is pleasing to see that these struggles did not affect true science. Commentators as well as the writers on ecclesiastical history obtained a clearer perception of the necessity of guarding against dogmatical prejudices on the one hand, and on the other of entering into more profound researches, and of handling their topics in a more spiritual and attractive manner.5 The distinguishing principles of the various denominations, the consideration of which had long been neglected from want of interest, were now more fully and scientifically discussed in the works of Symbolik." Christian Ethics were brought into connection with systematic theology, the different branches of theological science were regarded in a new light, and the way was prepared for a total reformation in practical theology.9

1 Claus Harms, born 1778, is still living as professor of theology in the university of Kiel (comp. Rheinwald, Repertorium xxx. p. 54.) The title of the work referred to is: Das sind die 95 Theses oder Streitsätze Dr Luthers, zum besondern Abdrucke besorgt, und mit andern 95 Sätzen vermehrt, Kiel 1817. On the controversy to which it gave rise, see the Evangelische Kirchenzeitung 1829. No. 45-48. 58-60. 80 ss. 88 ss. (Both Ammon and Schleiermacher took part in it.) Afterwards he wrote: Dass es mit der Vernunftreligion nichts is, Leipz. 1819. to which Krug replied in his treatise: Dass es mit der Vernuntftreligion doch etwas ist.

2 E. W. Ch. Sartorius, born 1797, professor of theology in the university of Königsberg. He wrote: die Religion ausserhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft, nach den Grundsätzen des wahren Protestantismus gegen die eines falschen Rationalismus, Marb. 1822. Comp. also Steffens, Heinr., von der falschen Theologie und dem wahren Glauben, eine Stimme aus der Gemeinde, Breslau 1823.

3 The Rationalists charged the Supranaturalists (Pietists, mystics) with holding antiprotestant principles; the Supranaturalists demanded, in their turn, that their opponents should secede from the church, and sometimes insisted upon their expulsion. The disputation of Leipsic, 1827.-The Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, edited by Hengstenberg, took a prominent part in this controversy.-Respecting the denunciations of Halle, and other events, see Hase, Kirchengeschichte p. 525-29.

4 These were the Bible Societies and Missionary Societies which, after the example given by England, were established on the continent, e. g. in Basle 1816. Berlin 1823.—They are the most eloquent apologists!-The advocates of mere negative principles only criticise, but do not produce anything.

5 After exegesis, subsequently to the time of Ernesti, had again become the servant of theologicel opinions (thus in the case of Storr and Paulus), Winer advocated the claims of the grammatico-historico interpretation, while Lücke (in his commentaries on the writings of John) prepared the way for a dynamic system of interpretation. Ecclesiastical history, which formerly had often been regarded as the history of human follies, was treated with laudable impartiality by Gieseler, and proved by Neander to indicate the development of the kingdom of God on earth. It is worthy of observation, that the newly awakened historical tendency also manifested itself in a number of monographical works. These and other circumstances contributed to a more scientific treatment of systematic theology.

6 Marheinecke and Winer, see Vol. i. p. 31.

7 De Wette pointed out many defects in the treatment of Christian ethics in his: Kritische Uebersicht der Ausbildung der theologischen Sittenlehre seit Calixt (theologische Zeitschrift Berlin 1819. p. 247 ss.)-Christian ethics were treated in connection with systematic theology by Nitzsch, C. J., System der

christlichen Lehre, Bonn 1829. Edit. 5th 1844, and Beck, J. T., die christliche Lehrwissenschaf tnach den biblischen Urkunden, Stuttg. 1840. 1. 1841. i. 2.

8 From the time of Schleiermacher, the theological encyclopædia was made a separate branch of theological science.

9 Schleiermacher, and after him Nitzsch, Marheinecke, and others, applied scientific treatment to practical theology.

§ 282.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF HEGEL.

Fichte, J. H, über Gegensatz, Wendepunct und Ziel der heutigen Philosophie. Heidelb. 1832.

Philosophy also kept pace with the development of theology. Since Hegel applied the methodico-dialectic treatment to the theory of Schelling, the principal element of which was the ideal, it acquired a more positive aspect, and was thus brought into a closer connection with the theology of Protestant Germany. The highest place was assigned to the idea [Germ-Begriff.] even in religion, while sentiment [Germ. Gefühl] and conception [Germ. Vorstellung] were deferred to a lower province. This was the principal difference between the system of Hegel and that of Schleiermacher. During the life-time of the founder of this new philosophical school, Daub2 and Marheinecke3 were the only two theologians who adopted his principles. But after his death his views gained a considerable number of adherents among the rising generation, among whom so great a difference obtained respecting some of the most important theological questions, that they formed two distinct parties. The one, called the orthodox party of the school of Hegel, advocates supranaturalistic, or theistico-conservative principles, while the tendency of the other is of a destructive character. In addition