ss. Arnold, Kirchen- und Ketzergesch. p. 199, 298 ss. Hangebach, Vorlesungen iv. p. 345. 5 Corrodi 1. c. 6 The mysticism of the Lutheran Church was of greater speculative importance than that of the Reformed. The former also exerted a greater influence upon the life of the German nation (domestic worship, etc.) than the latter, which was more cultivated by private individuals. § 225. INFLUENCE OF THE CARTESIAN PHILOSOPHY, AND OTHER MORE LIBERAL TENDENCIES UPON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THEOLOGY. Mysticism exerted less influence upon the gradual transformation of the doctrinal views of Calvinists, than the philosophical system of Cartesius, especially in the Netherlands.1 Balthazar Bekker, who not only combated the "World deluded," but also attacked the orthodox doctrines of the Church, belonged to the school of Cartesius. But, apart from the influence of philosophy, a more liberal tendency, which endeavoured to shake off the yoke of symbolical writings, manifested itself in different quarters. Such was the case in the university of Saumur,3 where this tendency was connected with Arminian notions, and among the Latitudinarians of England. Among the Swiss theologians John Alph. Turretin,5 Ben. Pictet, and Samuel Werenfels, were distinguished by moderate views, though they remained orthodox; thus they formed, not only in reference to their principles, but also in regard to the period in which they lived, the point of transition towards the eighteenth century. 1 Renatus Cartesius (his original name was René Descartes) was born A. D. 1596, and died 1650, at Stockholm. His maxim: "Cogito, ergo sum," is well known. His philosophy gave rise to commotions in Holland. Gisbert Voëtius, the principal opponent of Cartesius, charged him A. D. 1639 with atheism. The philosophy of Cartesius was condemned A. D. 1647 (and again 1676) by the senate of the university of Leyden, as well as 1657 by the synod of Delft. Several of the mystics just mentioned belonged orignally to the school of Cartesius. 2 He was born A. D. 1634, in Westfriesland, adopted the principles of Cartesius, was dismissed from office on account of his opinions, and died 1698. (Compare the chapter on demono logy in the special history of doctrines.) His principal work "die bezauberte Welt," Franecker 1692. 4°. contains the germs of the rationalism of latter times. 3 Representatives of the more liberal tendency were, among others, Moses Amyraldus (Amyraud) Joshua de la Place, Lewis Capellus, etc. It was especially in opposition to their notions that the Formula Consensus was drawn up. 4 Among them we may mention William Chillingworth (1602-1644), Ralph Cudworth (he died 1688), Tillotson, Stillingfleet, and several others. 5 He was the son of the strictly orthodox Francis Turretin, born 1671, and died at Geneva A. D. 1737. He wrote: Opuscula Brunsv. 1726, ii. 8.-Dilucidationes phil. theol. et dogmatico-morales, quibus præcipua capita theologiæ et naturalas et revelatæ demonstrantur. Lugd. Bat. 1748, iii. 4, and several others. 6 He was born A. D. 1655, and died A. D. 1724, at Geneva. He composed a Theologia christiana Gen. 1696. ii. 8.—Medulla Theologiæ ibid. 1711. 12. and several other works. 7 He was born 1657, and died 1740. (Athenæ rauricæ. p. 57, Hanhart, R.) in der wissenschaftlichen Zeitschrift. Basle 1824. part 1. p. 22. part 2. p. 53 ss.) He wrote: Opuscula theologica. Basil. 1782. iii. 8. III. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. § 226. THE COUNCIL OF TRENT, AND THE CATECHISMUS ROMANUS. + Sarpi [P. Soave Pol.], Istoria del concilio di Trento. London 1619. + Pallavicini, Istoria del Conc. di Trento. Rom. 1636. ii. fol. translated by + Klitsche, Augsburg 1835. Chemnitii Examen Concillii Tridentini. Francof. 1707. Salig, vollständige Historie des Tridentinischen Conciliums. Halle 1741. fol. iii. 4. † Göschl, Dr J. M. geschichtliche Darstellung des grossen allgemeinen Concils zu Trient. ii. Regensb. 1840. Confronted by Protestantism, the Roman Catholics found themselves compelled to examine the state of their own Church. They had to perform a twofold task, viz., first, to secure the doctrines which they proposed from misrepresentations, and false consequences, and secondly, to hold fast, with renewed vigour, that which their principles bound them to maintain. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) had therefore to enlighten the Roman Catholic Church on her own position, and solemnly to sanction the system developed, to a great extent, by the scholastics of the preceding period, in direct opposition to the demands of the reformers. The canons of this council,1 as well as those set forth in the Roman Catholic catechism, which was based upon the former,2 are therefore to be regarded as the true symbols of the Romish Church, and every other system must renounce all claims to catholicity. 1 Canones et decreta Concilii Tridentini Rom. 1564. 4. In the same year several editions were published at Rome, Venice, Antwerp, Louvain, Cologne, and many others. Lyons 1580. (with the Index librorum prohibitorum.) In later times editions were published by J. Gallemart, Col. 1618. 20. Antw. 1644, Lyons 1712, by Phil. Chiffelet. Antw. 1640, and Jodoc. le Plat. Antw. 1779. 4. Comp. Walch, Bibl. Theol. Tom. i. p. 407 ss. reprinted by Danz and Streitwolf (comp. Vol. i, p. 18.) As regards the history of doctrines and Symbolik, the Sessions 4-7. 13. 14. 21-25, are of special importance.-The Professio fidei Tridentina, based upon the canons of the council, was drawn up A. D. 1564, by order of Pope Pius IV., and none could obtain either an ecclesiastical office or an academical dignity, etc., without subscribing it. It will be found in the Bullar. Roman. T. ii. p. 127 ss. (and in the form of an appendix in the earlier edition of Winer.) Comp. Mohnicke G. Ch. F., urkundliche Geschichte der sogenannten Professio fidei Trident. etc. Greifswalde 1822. 8. Winer p. 9. 2 The Catechismus Romanus was composed (in accordance with a resolution of the Council of Trent sess. 25.) by Archbishop Leon Marino, Bishop Egidius Foscarari, and Fr. Fureiro, a Portuguese scholar, under the superintendence of three cardinals, and published A. D. 1566, by authority of Pope Pius IV. (the Latin by Paul Manutius.) Several editions and translations into the modern languages were published, of which the edition of Mayence 1834. 12. is intended for general use. In the earlier editions nothing but the text was given, without any division; in the edition of Cologne 1572, it was for the first time divided into books and chapters; that of Antwerp 1574 contained questions and answers. The Catechism consists of four parts: de symbolo apostolico, de sacramentis, de decalogo, and de oratione dominica. Concerning the relation in which the catechism stands to the canons of the Council of Trent, and the inferior importance assigned to it by the Jesuits and other Roman Catholic theologians, see Winer 1. c. The catechisms composed by the Jesuit P. Canisius (the larger of which appeared 1554, the smaller 1566), which acquired greater authority than the Catechismus Romanus, did not receive the sanction of the Pope, and on that account cannot be regarded as symbolical books; but they excited more attention, and gave rise to new controversies. Comp. Joh. Wigand, Warnung vor dem Catechismus des Dr Canisii, des grossen Jesuwidders. Jena 1570. 4. The Confutatio (comp. § 215. note 2.) might also be regarded as a document which sets forth the principles of Romanism, in opposition to Protestantism; but it was not formally sanctioned by the Church. § 227. THE SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. Among the theologians who defended the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church during the age of the Reformation, Desiderius Erasmus occupied the most prominent place, though he did not transmit to posterity a system of dogmatic theology.2 After the Council of Trent, it was the members of the Order of Jesus, in particular, who made the defence of modern Romanism (both theoretically and practically) the task of their lives. The most conspicuous doctrinal and polemical writer among them was Robert Bellarmin, 4 while Dionysius Petavius endeavoured to prove, historically the antiquity of the catholic faith.5 The following writers on dogmatic theology, and others also, belonging to that religious society: Peter Canisius, 6 Alphonse Salmeron, John Maldonat, Francis Suarez, Gabriel Vasquez,10 Francis Coster,11 Martin Becanus,12 and others. Among the opponents of the Jesuits, and their scholastic method, Melchior Canus, a Dominican monk, was the most distinguished.13 Jacques Bénigne Bossuet, the acute and clever bishop of Meaux, by spiritualizing Catholicism in the best possible way, endeavoured to render it more agreeable to Protestants, while, on the other hand, he showed the changes which their doctrines had undergone within a short space of time.14 1 On Thomas Cajetan (who wrote a commentary on Thomas Aquinas), Eck, Faber, Cochlæus, Wimpina, Ambrose Catharinus, and others; see the works on the history of the Reformation. Bouginé, Literaturgeschichte ii. p. 70 ss. Concerning |