tions, is mentioned as a principal article of diet in a Hebrew household. The milk of goats is perhaps there mentioned as being of the best quality. It is decidedly so considered in the East. The Arabs drink camels' milk (see note on ch. xxxii. 15.); but all their butter and cheese is made with the milk of goats and sheep, which are milked by the women every morning before daybreak. Cows' milk, where it is to be had, is held in comparatively little esteem, and is, in fact, much inferior to that which our own cows produce; perhaps because these animals cannot thrive well upon the wild and often scanty pastures of those regions.

21 And he said unto him, See, I have accepted thee concerning this thing also, that I will not overthrow this city, for the which thou hast spoken.

22 Haste thee, escape thither; for I can3 Chap. 18. 20. 4 Heb. are found. 5 Or, punishment. • Wisd. 10. 6. 7 Heb. thy face.

not do any thing till thou be come thither: | he overthrew the cities in the which Lot therefore the name of the city was called dwelt. Zoar.

23 The sun was 'risen upon the earth when Lot entered into Zoar.

24 Then 'the LORD rained upon Sodom and upon Gomorrah brimstone and fire, from the LORD out of heaven;

25 And he overthrew those cities, and all the plain, and all the inhabitants of the cities, and that which grew upon the ground. 26 But his wife looked back from behind him, and she became a pillar of salt.

27 ¶ And Abraham gat up early in the morning to the place where he stood before the LORD:

28 And he looked toward Sodom and Gomorrah, and toward all the land of the plain, and beheld, and lo, the smoke of the country went up as the smoke of a furnace.

29 And it came to pass, when God destroyed the cities of the plain, that God remembered Abraham, and sent Lot out of the midst of the overthrow, when

30 And Lot went up out of Zoar, and dwelt in the mountain, and his two daughters with him; for he feared to dwell in Zoar: and he dwelt in a cave, he and his two daughters.

31 And the firstborn said unto the younger, Our father is old, and there is not a man in the earth to come in unto us after the manner of all the earth:

32 Come, let us make our father drink wine, and we will lie with him, that we may preserve seed of our father.

33 And they made their father drink wine that night and the firstborn went in, and lay with her father; and he perceived not when she lay down, nor when she arose.

34 And it came to pass on the morrow, that the firstborn said unto the younger, Behold, I lay yesternight with my father: let us make him drink wine this night also; and go thou in, and lie with him, that we may preserve seed of our father.

8 Heb. gone forth. 9 Deut. 29. 23. Luke 17. 29. Isa. 13. 19. Jer. 50. 40. Amos 4. 11. Jude 7.

35 And they made their father drink wine that night also: and the younger arose, and lay with him; and he perceived not when she lay down, nor when she arose.

36 Thus were both the daughters of Lot with child by their father.

37 And the firstborn bare a son, and called his name Moab: the same is the father of the Moabites unto this day.

38 And the younger, she also bare a son, and called his name Ben-ammi: the same is the father of the children of Ammon unto this day.

Verse 24. "The Lord rained...brimstone and fire...out of heaven."-As the sacred writer, in a former chapter, mentions that the vale of Siddim was full of bitumen pits, and the towns must have been situated, as it were, upon a mine of that combustible matter, many interpreters of high name incline to the opinion that it does not in any respect detract from the supernatural character of this awful visitation, to conclude that the Almighty saw fit on this occasion to employ natural agencies in effecting the purposes of his will. The phrase, "brimstone and fire," may with at least equal propriety be rendered, "burning brimstone;" and as sulphur is found abundantly in the neighbouring hills, it is conceived that it was ignited by lightning or supernatural fire, and detached and poured down like rain upon the plain, where it kindled the bitumen already existing there, and produced a combustion and explosion which overwhelmed the cities, and wholly changed the character of the plain.

25. “And he overthrew those cities, and all the plain," &c.—This seems the proper place to give some account of that remarkable lake which we are expressly informed by Moses (chap. xiv. 3) occupies the site of the plain or valley (of Siddim) which was the scene of the above most awful transaction. This lake is called in Scripture by the names of the "Salt Sea" (Num. xxxiv. 3; Deut. iii. 17; Josh. xv. 5); "The Sea of the Plain" (Deut. iv. 49); and "the East Sea" (Ezek. xlvii. 18; Joel ii. 20); but it was known to the Greeks and Romans by the name of "Lake Asphaltites," that is, "the Bituminous Lake;" and in more modern times has generally been distinguished as "the Dead Sea." It is situated in the south of Palestine, and is of an irregular oblong figure, extending generally from north to south, but with a leaning of the northern portion eastward, which gives to the whole figure an appearance which has been compared to that of a bow. The mountains which enclose the Ghor, or valley of the Jordan, open considerably at the northern extremity of the lake and, encompassing it on the east and west sides, approach again at the southern extremity, leaving between them only a narrow plain which, under the names of El Ghor and El Araba, is continued southward to the eastern gulf of the Red Sea. The dimensions of the lake are very variously stated. The account most usually followed is that of Josephus, which seems to make it 72 miles long by 18 broad; but it would appear that this must be taken as a large estimate, for many modern observers have been disposed to reduce it by one-third, or even onehalf. It is probable that the dimensions of the lake have become more contracted than in former times; but nothing more determinate than ocular impressions has hitherto been offered on this subject. The epithets "Dead," and "Salt," which are applied to this great lake, may respectively form the points on which a short account of it may turn; the former denoting its general appearance, and the latter the quality of its waters. The name "Dead Sea' is supposed to have been given to the lake in consequence of the desolate appearance of all things around, and the absence of animal and vegetable life; for the waters being intensely salt, and the soil around deeply impregnated with saline matter, no plants or trees will grow there, and the saturation of the air with saline particles and sulphureous and bituminous vapours is also unfavourable to vegetable life. It is a necessary consequence of this, that no wild animals resort thither for food or drink, nor are flocks or herds led to its shores. The absence of fish also in its waters prevents even the resort of those water-fowl whose presence gives some animation to lakes less peculiarly circumstanced; and, altogether, the general aspect of nature in this blighted region is dull, cheerless, and depressing. The unusual stillness of so large a body of water is quite in unison with the general desolation, to which it not a little contributes. This is doubtless owing in a great degree to the shelter of the mountains which enclose it, and shut out the strong winds; but part of the effect may perhaps be attributed to the heaviness of the water. Where the waters occasionally overflow their usual limit, a saline crust is left upon the surface of the soil resembling hoar-frost, or snow. lake, and the lake only, being at certain seasons covered with a dense mist which is dissipated by the rays of the sun, it came to be said that black and sulphureous exhalations, destructive to animal life, were constantly arising; and it was added, that these exhalations struck dead any birds that attempted to fly across. The rare appearance of birds in consequence of the saltness of the water and the absence of fish, probably occasioned this report, which is now known to be incorrect. It is not uncommon to see swallows dipping for the water necessary to build their nests. Maundrell saw several birds flying about, and skimming the surface; under an experiment of Heyman and Van Egmont, sparrows got out of the water uninjured, after having fallen upon it in consequence of being deprived of some of their wing feathers; and Captains Irby and Mangles saw a pair of Egyptian geese and a flight of pigeons pass over the sea. As to the absence of fish, there is no good reason to doubt it. We do not recollect that any European travellers discovered any, although some heard of fish from the natives; but we know from experience how little reliance is to be placed on the reports of the Orientals on such subjects. The few shells of fish, always unoccupied, which have occasionally been found on the shores by Maundrell and other travellers, do not seem to afford any satisfactory evidence on the subject. Count Forbin could not even find any traces of microscopic animalcula in the waters of the Dead Sea. The waters of the Lake Ourmiah in the north of Persia are probably not more salt than those of the Dead Sea, and they are not known to contain any fish, or trace of animal life. The water itself, like that of the sea, is of a dark blue colour, shaded with green, according as the light falls upon it, and perfectly clear. It is much salter than the waters of the sea, and has also an unpleasant bitterness. Rae Wilson says that its taste is more disagreeable than the Harrogate waters, but the smell resembles it, and is also not unlike that of bilge-water. As the water is heavier than that of the sea, it necessarily has greater strength to support foreign bodies on its surface. Josephus relates that the most weighty things thrown into it will not sink; and that the Emperor Vespasian, to try its strength, caused certain men who could not swim to be thrown in with their hands tied behind them, and they floated on the surface. We do not, with some travellers, see the necessity of disputing the success of an experiment like this, which might be attended with the same results in common sea water. Most travellers, however, concur in attesting the unusual force with which the water of this lake sustained their bodies in swimming, or even without swimming; and as such effects must necessarily result from the extraordinary gravity of the water, it is likely that some merely local cause operated to prevent Jolliffe, Rae Wilson, and others from discovering that its sustaining power was much greater than that of the On leaving the lake, the water which adheres to the skin feels thick and clammy, and evaporates slowly, leaving

sea.

The

a thin crust of salt upon the person. Some of the water has been bottled, and brought by different travellers to Europe, and subjected to analysis. Lavoisier found that 100 lbs. of the water contained 45 lbs. 6 oz. of salt; which is rather greater than the proportion obtained by the more accurate analysis of Dr. Marcet, from a portion submitted to his examination, the principal results of which we may state, as given in the Philosophical Transactions' for 1807. It was perfectly transparent, and deposited no crystals when left standing in close vessels. Its taste was peculiar, saline, bitter, and pungent. The specific gravity was found to be 1-211 (that of fresh water being 1000), exhibiting a degree of density not to be found in any other natural water which has been submitted to analysis. The results of different experiments showed that 100 grains of the water contained:-Muriate of lime, 3.920; muriate of magnesia, 10.246; muriate of soda, 10.360; sulphate of lime, 0-054; total 24.580. Thus the water contains about one-fourth of its weight in salts in a state of perfect desiccation; but if the salts be desiccated only at the temperature of 180°, the amount will be 41 per cent. of the water. It appears not unlikely that the qualities of the water may be somewhat different in different parts of the lake and times of the year, which will account for some small differences in the analysis, and in the accounts of travellers.

It only remains to notice that large quantities of asphaltum are found floating on the surface of the water, and not improbably arise from the "slime pits" now submerged, with which Moses states that the original vale of Siddim was full (chap. xiv. 10). There are writers, however, who choose rather to find these "slime pits" in certain hot springs, and deep clefts or pits, at the bottom of which bitumen is found, and which would still be dangerous to travellers were not their situation denoted by small pyramidal structures. The floating asphaltum (which gives to the lake one of its many names) is generally driven by the winds to the southern and western banks: it is collected by the Arabs, and is not only used as pitch, but enters into the composition of medicines, and seems to have been anciently much employed in Egypt in the embalming of bodies. The shores of the sea, and also the neighbouring hills, furnish a sort of stone or coal, which readily ignites, and yields an intolerable stench in burning, which diminishes its weight but not its bulk. This substance, which is quite black, takes as fine a polish as marble, and Maundrell saw blocks two feet square, beautifully polished and carved in relief, with which it was intended to ornament the new church in the convent of St. John in the Desert. Malte Brun and some other writers imagine that the buildings of the cities may have been constructed with this combustible material, and were therefore the more readily ignited and consumed; but we are not willing to admit mere gratuitous probabilities for the purpose of facilitating, as it were, the work of Omnipotence. Not only the water of the lake, but the soil around it, is profusely impregnated with sulphur. Mines of fossil salt are also found in the side of the mountains which extend along the western shore, and these have from time immemorial furnished supplies of that useful article to the Arabs, and even to Jerusalem. Some writers attribute the saltness of the lake to the presence of these mines. Professor Paxton and others regard the sulphur and salt not as original, but accidental ingredients, remaining after the destruction of the vale by fire and brimstone from heaven. Not only, in their opinion, does this agree best with the text, literally understood, but is supported by considering that the previous presence of salt and sulphur in the soil, which always creates sterility, is incompatible with the previous fertility which Moses assigns to the district, while the presence of bitumen, which the sacred writer expressly mentions, harmonizes with his other statement, inasmuch as bitumen is usually found to abound most in the richest soils. We are disposed to concur in this; nor does it imply any contradiction to the foregoing note, which does not suppose that sulphur or salt existed in the plain until first detached from the hills by the terrible convulsion which this chapter records. It used to be considered that the lake must have some subterraneous communication with the Mediterranean to enable it to dispose of the waters it receives from the Jordan (estimated at 6,090,000 tons daily), the Arnon, and other streams; but modern science enables us to determine that the evaporation from such an extent of surface as it offers must absorb a quantity of water fully equal to that which the rivers contribute. The "apples of Sodom," beautiful without, and dust and ashes within; the doleful sounds issuing from the lake; and the sometimes visible remains of the submerged cities:-these, and other points of interest with which traditions and fanciful imaginations have invested the Dead Sea, we may pass unnoticed; but on the last point, we cannot refrain from expressing our astonishment that sensible modern travellers should have thought it worth their while to look narrowly for walls and pillars under the water, and that some have even fancied that they had seen them. The cities of the plain were probably small towns, built with mud or bricks, without any pillars, unless of wood; and a few days' submersion would convert them into heaps of rubbish or dissolve them in the waters, not to speak of the previous overthrow and burning which they experienced. Most of the exaggerations and marvellous stories about this lake are doubtless owing to its singularity, no similar lake being known to the mass of ancient writers and more modern travellers. The mind must ever be deeply impressed by regarding the lake as a monument of the divine anger against a sinful people; nor is its solemnity, as such, diminished by the knowledge that there are other lakes very similar to the Dead Sea. The Lake Ourmiah, in Persia, for instance, exhibits a very striking analogy to it in many of its principal features; nor is there any considerable difference of dimension between them.

26. "Looked back from behind him.”—As Lot had much cattle, his family probably mounted on camels when the angels had led them outside the city. Whether walking or riding, the wife was behind her husband, according to an usage still prevalent in the East, where no woman goes before or beside her husband. Mr. Roberts, in his curious Oriental Illustrations,' remarks, that it is considered exceedingly unfortunate in Hindoostan for men or women to look back when they leave their house. Accordingly, if a man goes out and leaves something behind him which his wife knows he will want, she does not call to him to turn or look back, but takes or sends it after him; and if some great emergency obliges him to look back, he will not then proceed on the business he was about to transact. If we mistake not, some similar feeling is entertained in some parts of England, though not carried so far into operation. "She became a pillar of salt."-The text does not afford any ground for the common impression that Lot's wife became a statue of rock salt. The word rendered a pillar denotes generally any fixed object, and that rendered "salt" denotes also bitumen. So the text would seem to denote that the woman was overwhelmed by the encroaching matter, which formed a mound over her and fixed her where she stood. The "pillar of salt" is one of the wonders which travellers have been in the habit of looking for in this district, and masses of salt have accordingly been shown them; but in such different situations as to manifest that the natives were imposing upon them for the sake of their money. 30. "He dwelt in a cave."-The angels had instructed him to flee to the mountains, the usual resort in times of danger; and he appears to have made no long stay in Zoar before he followed their directions. There is nothing extraordinary in his resorting to a cave as a residence. Caverns were probably the original habitations of men, and after tents and houses were invented, such still remained the fixed habitations of some people, and the occasional resort of others. It is possible that Lot had previously resided there before he settled in Sodom, and it was no doubt known to his shepherds when out with his flocks in the more distant pastures. The mountains of Palestine abound in caves,

some of vast extent; and it was and is customary for the shepherds to occupy them, and often to shelter the cattle in them while pasturing in the neighbourhood. The people who flee to the mountains in times of danger (see note on chap. xiv. 10) are glad of the accommodation which such caverns offer, and occupy them, with their wives and children, and all their property in moveables and cattle. Thus Lot seems to have been circumstanced.

6 And God said unto him in a dream, Yea, I know that thou didst this in the integrity of thy heart; for I also withheld thee from sinning against me: therefore suffered I thee not to touch her.

7 Now therefore restore the man his wife; for he is a prophet, and he shall pray for thee, and thou shalt live: and if thou restore her not, know thou that thou shalt surely die, thou, and all that are thine.

8 Therefore Abimelech rose early in the morning, and called all his servants, and told all these things in their ears: and the men were sore afraid.

9 Then Abimelech called Abraham, and

said unto him, What hast thou done unto us? and what have I offended thee, that thou hast brought on me and on my kingdom a great sin? thou hast done deeds unto me that ought not to be done.

10 And Abimelech said unto Abraham, What sawest thou, that thou hast done this thing?

II And Abraham said, Because I thought, Surely the fear of God is not in this place; and they will slay me for my wife's sake.

.

12 And yet indeed she is my sister; she is the daughter of my father, but not the daughter of my mother; and she became my wife.

13 And it came to pass, when God caused me to wander from my father's house, that I said unto her, This is thy kindness which thou shalt shew unto me; at every place whither we shall come, say whither we shall come, say of me, He is my brother.

3

14 And Abimelech took sheep, and oxen, and menservants, and womenservants, and gave them unto Abraham, and restored him Sarah his wife.

15 And Abimelech said, Behold, my land is before thee: dwell where it pleaseth thee.

16 And unto Sarah he said, Behold, I have given thy brother a thousand pieces of silver: behold, he is to thee a covering of the eyes, unto all that are with thee, and with all other: thus she was reproved.

17¶ So Abraham prayed unto God: and God healed Abimelech, and his wife, and his maidservants; and they bare children.

18 For the LORD had fast closed up all the wombs of the house of Abimelech, because of Sarah Abraham's wife.

3 Chap. 12. 13. 4 Heb. as is good in thine eyes.

1 Heb. married to an husband. 2 Or simplicity, or sincerity. Verse 12. "Indeed she is my sister."-It is evident that in the most early times marriages between brothers and sisters were necessary in consequence of the small number of persons in the world. The sons of Adam must have married their sisters. The practice continued after the necessity for it had ceased, but it seems to have been discontinued among the Hebrews as soon, or sooner than among any other people. It is observable that Abraham's marriage with his sister seems to have been considered as nothing extraordinary either in Egypt or Gerar. We know, indeed, that in Egypt marriages between brothers and sisters were sanctioned by the laws in times long posterior to the date of this transaction. We find no instance in the history of their patriarchs of a man marrying his full sister; and even marriages with sisters not by the same mother, such as this of Abraham and Sarah, were forbidden by the law of Moses: previously to which, the Jewish doctors think, with great probability, that the only marriages considered unlawful, were of a man with his own mother or step-mother, or his sister by the same mother. But the Law itself countenanced, and even rendered obligatory, marriages which our laws interdict, as that of a man with the widow of his deceased brother; this was for the purpose of retaining property in the same family or tribe. We shall find the same view influencing the conduct of the patriarchs in their marriages, as it continues to influence the Arabian tribes. Such marriages as the law of Moses interdicts, and as the practice of the patriarchs does not countenance, continued to prevail long after among other nations whose early history is known to us.