THE following letter has been sent by the Joint Committee representing the Allied Associations to the Inter-Departmental Glass Trades Committee of the Ministry of Munitions, also the appropriate Government Departments. A separate case is being prepared for establishing on a secure basis in this country, on similar lines, the Porcelain Industry and Glassware for Lighting.

The Secretary, INTER DEPARTMENTAL GLASS TRADES COMMITTEE, 22, Hertford Street, W.

SIR,-We desire on behalf of the following Associations, viz., the British Chemical Ware Manufacturers' Association, the British Flint Glass Manufacturers' Association, the British Lamp-blown Scientific Glassware Manufacturers' Association, and the British Laboratory Ware Association, to put forward for your careful consideration the very strong case for establishing on a secure basis in this country the key industry, or rather the "Master Key industry:-"Scientific, Heat Resisting, and Chemical

Glassware."

1. On the outbreak of war the country was faced with a very serious shortage of chemical glassware, the only sources of supply in most classes of articles being the stocks of enemy-made articles held by the merchants in this country; but for these stocks the situation would have been disastrous, as there were no existing facilities for manufacture.

2. The extreme seriousness of the situation has been acknowledged and has been referred to in both Lord Balfour of Burleigh's report and Dr. Addison's opening speech to the first meeting of the trade when the Whitley Interim Industrial Committee was formed.

3. The absolute necessity of this industry to the country will be appreciated when once it has been realised that the development of all industries depends primarily on

60.6501

47.5519

100% Na.C1.

the progress made in the laboratory, where new processes can be worked up and the means of utilising waste products can be discovered.

4. The following industries besides using glassware common to all laboratories, use special glass apparatus particularly adapted to their own needs, and if these were unobtainable or withheld, the result must at the very least be very damaging to the business concerned. These industries include :-Agriculture, armament firms, breweries, cement manufacturers, chemical manufacturers, dyes, explosives factories, food production, gas companies, iron and steel works, leather and tanning industry, non-ferrous metal trades, oil cake manufacture, oil and tar distilleries, sugar manufacture, paper makers, &c. In addition to the laboratories for industrial purposes, there are all the medical and research laboratories attached to the hospitals, the county and municipal laboratories devoted to public health and hygiene, and last but by no means least the various laboratories at the universities, in colleges, schools, and technical institutes, private laboratories, &c., all of which use special glass apparatus, and are always wanting apparatus of new types. In fact, there is no branch of our national life, economic or social, which is independent of scientific and chemical glassware, and no other industry can lay claim to such indispensa bility. We therefore justify our claim to be the “Master Key" industry of the country.

5. This is the very industry which we desire to fortify, but owing to the war and the long period of training necessary to produce a skilled workman, we have not yet been able to get a sufficiency of labour trained to meet all demands made on us for scientific glassware.

6. It must be remembered that this is an industry which prior to the war was practically non-existent in this country, and consequently there was no labour skilled in the working of scientific glassware ready to step into the breach on the outbreak of war. It is true that there were a few glassworkers at the blowpipe who were available for training new and unskilled labour, but there was practically no skilled labour available for the manufacture of heat resisting glassware and other chemical apparatus. This labour had to be trained, and it speaks volumes for the trade that they have been able to do so much during the war; had it not been for the help of the Optical Munitions Glassware Department of the Ministry of Munitions in protecting our labour we should not have been able to record such advances as have been made.

7. We now look forward, with continued help, to establishing thoroughly on a secure footing this "Master Key" industry in this country. The progress which this country makes in industry after the war will depend to a very large extent on the increase and development of scientific control and scientific research into the byproducts of manufacture, and it is unthinkable that all this should be dependent on foreign countries, through their laboratory glassware.

8. This industry will give employment to a large number of men and women, and indirectly on it depends ultimately the economic development of the country, as well from an industrial as from a public health standpoint.

WITH regard to yield and consumption of the cereals and of other foodstuffs of prime necessity it may be fairly stated that almost all the really important countries have communicated their official estimates of crops in 1918 to the International Institute of Agriculture. This Institute is thus enabled to publish in its Bulletin of Agricultural and Commercial Statistics for November, 1918, these estimates in a very complete form, dealing with the world's food situation so far as the recent harvests are concerned.

We summarise in tabular form the aggregate results of the most important crops of foodstuffs, as harvested in those countries of the northern hemisphere which are mentioned in connection with each product.

It will be seen from these figures that, as compared with the preceding crop, this year's yields have been excellent for rye (131 per cent of that in 1917), linseed (122 per cent), and wheat (118 per cent), while they were good as regards sugar beet (107 per cent) and barley (109 per cent). The crop of oats was slightly better than that of 1917 (102 per cent), while potatoes yielded decidedly less (89 per cent), and maize was even lower (87 per cent).

As compared with the average yield of the five years 1912 to 1916, the current year 1918 shows excellently for rye (136 per cent), oats (117 per cent), and barley (112 per cent), and is also good as regards wheat (107 per cent) and sugar beet (106 per cent), with an average outturn for maize (99 per cent). A falling off may be noticed for potatoes (96 per cent) and especially for linseed (85 per cent).

Among the new data published in the bulletin now under examination we find the yield of wheat in Ireland for 1918 (1,616,646 quintals, or 129.9 per cent of the yield in 1917 and 287.3 per cent of the average 1912 to 1916), in the Netherlands (1,312,740 quintals, or 125.8 and 875 per cent), and in Sweden (1,800,600 quintals, or 96.4 and 73.8 per cent), those of rye in the Netherlands (2,592,670 quintals, or 77'1 and 70.8 per cent), and in Sweden (6,515,000 quintals, or 182.2 and 107'4 per cent), those of barley in Ireland (1,868,072 quintals, or 109 and 120 per cent), and in Sweden (2,819,000 quintals, or 110'1 and 90.3 per cent), those of oats in Ireland (15,497,132 quintals, or 112.8 and 163.1 per cent), in the Netherlands (2,494,000 quintals, or 86 2 and 82-8 per cent), and in Sweden (9,389,000 quintals, or 96.3 and 77'2 per cent).

We may also mention the Italian maize crop (17 million quintals, or 88.7 per cent of the yield in 1917, and 71.2 per cent of the average), of the rice (5 million quintals, or 955 and 96.4 per cent), of the potato crop (12 million quin als, or 95 3 and 77.3 per cent), of hemp (800 thousand quintals, or 956 and 87.7 per cent), and of Italian wine (34 million hectolitres, or 713 and 88.3 per cent).

Maize. Spain, Switzer-
land, Canada, United
States
Linseed.-Italy, Canada,
United States, British
India

Potatoes. - France, England and Wales, Scotland, Italy, Luxemburg, Sweden, Canada, United States

Sugar

beet.

Sweden,

106'4

Canada, United States 66,775 106.8

hemisphere, where harvest is just beginning, the Institute With regard to the 1918-1919 crop in the southern is in possession of two forecasts of the yields of wheat. One from Australia for 22 million quintals represents 70'1 per cent of the yield in 1917-18, and 73.2 per cent of the the Union of South Africa for 2.594,535 quintals, or 107'9 average for five years 1912-13 to 1916-17. Another from and 154'4 per cent. Besides these, the information from Uruguay allows for the belief that there will be good crops of wheat, barley, oats, and linseed.

live stock in Ireland, Canada, and New Zealand. In the This Bulletin includes data relating to the number of two latter countries, but especially in Canada, we find a considerable increase in 1918 as compared with the previous year. Thus in the last mentioned country the number of milch cows has increased by 10'6 per cent, that of other cattle by 37'9 per cent, that of sheep by 28.2 per cent, and that of pigs by 18.5 per cent.

In the pages of the Bulletin that are dedicated to international trade in the cereals, we may call attention to information hitherto unpublished, and communicated by the Inter-allied Food Council, sitting in London, dealing with imports of cereals into France, Great Britain and Ireland, and Greece during the twelve months ending August 31, 1918.

Royal Institution.-The Christmas Lectures on "The Fish of the Sea," by Prof. D'Arcy W. Thompson, F.R.S., &c., will be continued on Saturday, Jan. 4, Tuesday, Jan. 7, Thursday, Jan. 9, and Saturday, Jan. 11, at 3 p.m.

CHEMICAL NEWS,}

Jan. 3, 1919

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

Ordinary Meeting, December 12, 1918.

Sir J. J. THOMSON, O.M., President, in the Chair.

THE following papers were read :—

"Cooling and Evaporative Powers of the Atmosphere, as Determined by the Kata-thermometer." By LEONARD HILL, F.R.S., and HARGOOD ASH.

A further investigation has been made of cooling power of air at known temperature and velocity of movement in the large wind tunnels at the East London College, with the aid of Mr. N. A. V. Piercey, the lecturer on Aeronautical Engineering, timing the rate of cooling of the kata-thermometer, a large bulbed spirit thermometer graduated between 100 and 95° F., and the factor of which was determined whereby the cooling power on a surface at body temperature is expressed in millicalories per sq. cm. per sec. The formula was deduced H= (0°27+049 Vve where e the difference between the temperature of the air and 36.5 C. Using this formula we found the velocity of the wind determined by the katathermometer at Kew Observatory agreed closely with the velocity determined by the Cup and Dines anemometers.

Using this formula to determine velocity, the cooling of the wet kata-thermometer was reinvestigated in a tube 3 in. in diameter, through which air was drawn from a chamber, the temperature and humidity of which

could be varied. The formula was deduced E(F-f)4/3-0085 +0 102 Vo'3 for expressing the evaporative power, the full formula for the cooling of the wet kata-thermometer then being

H=(0·27+0*49 √v)@+(0·085+0·102V0'3) (F — ƒ)4/3. The effect on evaporative power of varying the temperature of the evaporating surface was determined, and the use of the kata thermometer as a measure of evaporative power of drying processes pointed out. The effect of barometric pressure on cooling power was worked out in a chamber in which the atmospheric pressure was varied from +15 lbs. to 340 mm. Hg. The results were found to agree with the formula theoretically deduced

where H1 = cooling power at pressure P1, and Ho-cooling power at atmospheric pressure po.

The formula expresses influence of barometric pressure on convection cooling power. At ordinary temperatures cooling power exerted on dry kata-thermometer is half due to radiation, half to convection.

"Observations on Changes in the Blood Pressure and Blood Volume following Operations in Man." By H. C. BAZETT.

"The Four Visible Ingredients in Banded Bituminous Coal." By M. C. STOPES, D.Sc.

The coal discussed is the ordinary streaky bituminous coal of the British coal measures widely used in house and factory.

Disregarding for the time being the ultimate morphological nature of the plant organs contributing to them, four differing substances or constituents are described as composing such coal. These can be recognised by differences in their general character.

(a) Differences in their macroscopic appearance and texture (i.e., with the naked eye in hand specimens).

(b) By their different behaviour when treated with various chemicals.

(c) By the differences in the débris of each which result from their treatment with various chemicals.

(d) By the differences in microscopic sections of untreated samples of each.

7

These differences are further followed up by analysis and distillations to be considered in a later paper.

Diagrams are given to show the characteristic distribution of these constituents in section, and to indicate if not a parallel to, at least a possibly useful comparison with, petrological work on rocks.

The four ingredients thus determined are fusain (the already widely discussed "mineral charcoal "), and durain, clarain, and vitrain, the three latter names being given now for the first time.

"On the Arc Spectrum of Scandium." By Sir W. CROOKES, O.M., F.R.S.

FARADAY SOCIETY.

THE following resolution was passed on the motion of the President :

That this Society, meeting during the week in which the crushing defeat of Germany was signalised by the armistice just signed, expresses the deepest gratitude to the Naval, Military, and Air Forces of the British Empire for the magnificent services they have rendered in bringing about the termination of hostilities.

GENERAL DISCUSSION ON "THE OCCLUSION OF GASES BY METALS."

The Ninetieth Ordinary Meeting of the Faraday Society was held on Tuesday, November 12, 1918, in the Rooms of the Chemical Society, Burlington House, London, W., when a General Discussion took place on "The Occlusion of Gases by Metals."

The Discussion was introduced by the President, Sir ROBERT HADFIELD, Bart., D.Sc., D.Met., F.R.S., who occupied the chair.

The President's address opened with an historical survey, beginning with the first scientific contribution on the subject made by Graham in 1866. Previously, Bessemer, in 1856, had recognised the importance of removing gases from fluid steel, and had patented a process to effect this. He outlined the work of later investigators as it concerns the ferrous metals, emphasising le Chatelier's views on the important influence of occluded oxygen on the structure of steel. He next reviewed Héroult's opinion as to the production of carbon monoxide in solidifying steel and its action in forming blow-holes, and he drew particular attention to the recent work of Allemann and Darlington, who by means of a gas-tight vacuum furnace capable of working at 1900° C., studied the gases occluded in ferrous alloys, and concluded that metals like aluminium, manganese, silicon, &c., acted as catalytic agents in preventing the occlusion of or in eliminating gases. The matter of sound steel castings was next considered and the difficulties of the early workers, who had no scientific guidanee, were graphically illustrated. The great modern development of the use of silicon was due to the French metallurgists. The production of steel free from cccluded gases, segregation, piping, and other defects, was of sufficient national importance as to call for a Special Committee to study it exhaustively.

The printed address concludes with a bibliography. A short note by Mr. HENRY A. KENT indicated the wide field covered by the subject, which embraced all known actiens and reactions.

He drew attention to some general considerations. Thus the base metals and alloys have a larger variation than the noble metals. The rare-earth metals occlude and combine at a low temperature, forming oxides, hydrides, nitrides, &c. The action of the accumulator depended on the absorption by lead of both oxygen and hydrogen.

Radio-active phenomena raised the question as to what might be the effect of occlusion of such gases as argon, helium, krypton, neon, and xenon.

Prof. ALFRED W. PORTER, D.S., F.R.S., opened the discussion with some "General Remarks on Occlusion of Gases in Metals."

The name "occlusion" was introduced by Thomas Graham in 1866 for the property of absorbing hydrogen and subsequently retaining it for an indefinite tine, and has since been used to cover a multiplicity of phenomena of similar type. These phenomena can be grouped under the following heads :

i. Chemical combination of gas with metal. ii. Simple solid solution of gases.

iii. Immiscible solid solution of gases in equilibrium

It is usually a delicate matter to distinguish between these various types in practice. As an example, the question of the occlusion of hydrogen in palladium is discussed in some detail.

Amongst phenomena due to occlusion of gases may be mentioned the passivity of iron and the embrittling of iron. The Volta effect has often been attributed to con

densed gases. Modern work has completely reopened the vexed question of Volta potential.

The embrittling of iron by occluded gases raised the question what constituted brittleness. Cobbler's wax was brittle to a sudden fracture. The questiou of time was

involved.

Mr. COSMO JOHNS introduced the applied side of the subject in a paper "On the Physical Properties of Metals as affected by their 'Occluded Gases.'"

The word "occlusion" has been used to cover the many complex changes that take place when gases are absorbed by metals, and has thus become a general term rather than one which connotes a particular mode of association of gases and metals. While it may still be retained and used in that general sense, it seems desirable to distinguish as "Primary" such gases as were originally absorbed as such, and regard as "Secondary" such as are formed as the products of reactions that occurred during the cooling of the metallic mass.

The absorption of hydrogen by iron and copper under certain conditions are cited as examples of true occlusion, and the marked change in the physical properties of the two metals as described by Heyn is noted. As hydrogen is more soluble in the molten state of these metals than in the solid, it would follow that if the existence of a vitreous, or non-oriented, phase as an intercrystalline cement is admitted, the result of the cooling of a metallic mass containing hydrogen would be the concentration of the gas in the intercrystalline film, and the physical properties of the mass might be profoundly affected by a comparatively small quantity of gas.

The gaseous oxygen compounds found in iron and copper are more difficult to discuss, for in the case of iron it is certain that a portion of CO and CO2 found in the solid metal is of secondary origin, formed during the cooling of the mass by reactions between dissolved iron oxide and carbon. If the mixed gases in the ratio that would be in equilibrium with the molten iron are soluble, then they would suffer concentration during cooling and would occur between the crystals. The SO2 found in copper is probably partly secondary. It has been found that the value of the surface tension of liquid steel varies inversely as the quantity of occluded gases found in the solid metal. This is probably due to the effect of the dissolved iron oxide reducing the value of the surface tension, the occluded gases found being to a considerable extent oxygen compounds of secondary origin. From observations made on copper it appears probable that the same rule applies, but the evidence was not conclusive, and it is very desirable that the experiments be repeated under better controlled conditions. It is concluded

that "as all of the metals used for industrial purposes contains gases as constituents, and as all the more complete physical investigations of the commun metals have been made on specimens containing such gases, it follows that we have no knowledge of the physical properties which the pure metals or their alloys would possess if they could be produced, and such data as are available can only refer to metals or their alloys with an unknown quantity of gases as important constituents."

Captain J. W. MCBAIN (Bristol University) communicated a paper on "Theories of Occlusion; and the Sorption | of Iodine by Carbon."

It was emphasised that sorption phenomena often include a number of independent factors, such as absorption (surface condensation), absorption (solid solution), and various types of chemical reaction. These differ greatly in the time relationships and quantities involved, as in their dependence upon temperature.

After drawing attention to striking theories of these phenomena which have been recently advanced, arising out of the study of the structure of crystals by means of X-rays, experimental results were described, involving iodine and carbon and exhibiting typical sorption behaviour. Some of these experiments had been allowed to proceed for periods up to eleven years.

Dr. ANDREW MCCANCE (Glasgow) read a paper entitled "Balanced Reactions in Steel Manufacture."

mainly balanced reactions, in which the important The reactions which take place in a melting-furnace are influences are temperature aud concentration of the reactants. During melting the steel is in contact with a variety of gases with which it may react, but the only reaction which conforms with the well-known practical fact that cold melted charges have a higher content of FeO in the slag on melting than those which have been worked at a higher temperature is the oxidation caused by the presence of steam:-3Fe+4H2O=Fe3O4+4H2.

This reaction has a positive heat balance, and proceeds from right to left when the temperature is increased. During boiling the carbon is removed according to the equation FeO+C=CO+Fe.

There are several reasons for believing that FeO is soluble in liquid steel, and as a consequence, in those charges which are worked with only one ore addition, the log carbon plotted against time should be a straight-line law. Experiment shows that this is so, and further that there is a distinct alteration in the rate at which the carbon is oxidised after boiling commences compared with the previous rate.

Along with this reaction another takes place, namely, FeO+CO=CO2+ Fe, which is very important, and which accounts for the proportion of CO2 found in the gases extracted from steel. Experimental evidence supports the view that this reaction is the controlling reaction for blowbole formation. When there is a high content of CO2 in the liquid steel, blow holes are formed owing to the limited solubility which solid steel has for this gas. An excess of this gas is present when much FeO is also present-i.e., when the steel is highly oxidised. The action of deoxidants, by removing the FeO, at the same time converts the CO2 into CO, for which the steel in the solid state has still a considerable solubility. So long as the saturation limit is not reached no blow-holes will be formed.

In estimating the gases contained in steel, great care must be used in interpreting the results obtained, since they are certainly modified by the effect of reactions taking place between the evolved gases and the sclid steel.

Dr. W. ROSENHAIN, F.R.S., contrasted the absorption of gases by liquid metals with their solution in ordinary liquids, where solubility decreased with rising temperature. This pointed to the formation of compounds more stable at nigher temperatures, but the way in which the cooling metal parted with its gas involved many points calling for investigation. If the gas remained in the metal