gives the sense of 'only' in a conditional sentence. Dumtaxat ('provided one estimates it,' i.e. dum aliquis taxat) denotes 'only,' as expressing a limitation in the judgment of the speaker; it means, therefore, not less than,' i.e. 'at least;' or 'not more than,' i.e. ' at most.' Thus we have: Veniat modo, explicet suum illud volumen. Cic. Rosc. Am. 35. Vide modo. Cic. Caecil. 14. Videtur posse opprimi, modo ut salva urbe. Cic. ad div. XVI. 12. In hac arte, si modo est ars, nullum est præceptum, quomodo verum inveniatur. Cic. Or. 11. 33. Nomen tantum virtutis usurpas; quid ipsa valeat ignoras. Cic. Par. 2. Dixit tantum; nihil ostendit. Cic. Flacc. 15. Quasi vero atra bile solum, ac non sæpe vel iracundia graviore, vel timore, vel dolore moveatur. Cic. Tusc. III. 5. Amicitia nisi inter bonos esse non potest. Cic. Am. 5. Antonius nil nisi de rei publicæ pernicie cogitabat. Cic. Phil. IV. 2. Hac tamen in oppressione sermo in circulis dumtaxat et conviviis est liberior, quam fuit. Cic. Att. II. 18. Valde me Athenæ delectarunt, urbs dumtaxat et urbis ornamentum. Cic. Att. v. 10. Non modo -sed or non solum-sed may be used like our 'not only-but.' If, however, the propositions are negative, and both clauses have a common verb, non modo—sed ne-quidem is used for non modo non ―sed ne-quidem. Otherwise non modo non is expressed in the first clause; and non modo nullus, nihil, nemo, nunquam, nusquam, are the general forms, even when both clauses are negative. Thus we have: In privatis rebus si quis rem mandatam non modo malitiosius gessisset, sui quæstus aut commodi causa, verum etiam negligentius; eum majores summum admisisse dedecus existimabant. Cic. Rosc. Am. 38. O rem indignam, in qua non modo docti, verum etiam agrestes erubescant! Cic. Leg. 1. 14. Tullus Hostilius non solum proximo regi dissimilis, sed ferocior etiam Romulo fuit. Liv. 1. 22. Qua in re Cæsar non solum publicas, sed etiam privatas injurias ultus est. Cæs. B. G. 1. 12. Tu non solum ad negligendas leges et quæstiones, verum etiam ad evertendas perfringendasque voluisti. Cic. Cat. 1. 7. Talis vir non modo facere, sed ne cogitare quidem quidquam audebit, quod non honestum sit. Cic. Off. III. 19. Regnum video, non modo Romano homini, sed ne Persæ quidem cuiquam tolerabile. Cic. Att. x. 8. If the negative in the first clause belongs to a single verb, it must necessarily stand by itself after non modo. Thus we have: Cæsaris ac Pompeii non modo res gestas non antepono meis, sed ne fortunam quidem ipsam. Cic. Att. x. 4.

D. L. G.

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§ 2. Prepositions.

109 Prepositions are merely adverbs used in connexion with cases of the noun, from which they derive their principal application. The doctrine of the cases belongs to syntax; but the meaning of the prepositions may be explained here.

(a) A (ab, absque), ad, adversus, apud, versus.

A or ab (more rarely absque, which signifies without') denotes separation or removal from the side or surface of an object; it may generally be rendered by 'from' or 'by,' and takes the ablative. As the act of separating implies nearness at the time of separation, we find that a (ab) is used to express relative positions, as a fronte, 'in front,' a tergo, 'behind;' and our word ' amanuensis' comes from the Latin phrase for a secretary: libertus a manu, 'a freed-man at the hand,' i. e. 'who had to do with writing.'

Ad signifies the act of addition, or motion with a view to conjunc

tion or juxtaposition; it may generally be rendered by 'to' or 'at,' and takes the accusative. It is often combined with versus or versum in the sense of 'towards' or 'against:' as adversus leges, 'against the laws.' And versus alone may be used with names of places; as Brundisium versus, 'towards Brundisium.' Apud, which is compounded of ab and ad, combines the meanings of these two prepositions, for it signifies 'being by the side of but not part of an object,' and this implies both juxtaposition and separation; it may generally be rendered by 'at' or 'with,' and always takes the accusative.

(b) Ante, in, inter, intra.

In denotes position 'upon' or 'within' an object. It takes an accusative when it denotes 'into,' 'unto,' 'to,' and an ablative when it signifies 'in' or 'upon.' In the former case it may be followed by versus, as in Galliam versus, 'towards Gaul.'

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Inter signifies between' or 'among,' and governs the accusative. It is also used to express mutual agency, as inter se diligunt, 'they love one another.'

Intra, which is only another form of inter, means 'within,' and governs the accusative.

Ante means 'before,' in place, time, or degree, and takes the accusative.

(c) De, e (ex), extra.

E or ex denotes motion from the interior of an object; it may generally be rendered 'out of,' and takes the ablative.

Extra, 'beyond' or 'without,' is the opposite of intra, and like it takes the accusative.

De implies descent and derivation, and takes the ablative. Its proper meaning is 'down from,' as de rostris descendit, 'he came down from the pulpit;' but it is very commonly used to denote the subject from which an action or writing is derived, i. e. the source of agency; thus, scripsit de republica, 'he wrote about or concerning the commonwealth,' that was the source or subject from which he derived his book.

(d) Cis (citra), circa (circum, circiter), trans, ultra.

Cis or citra, 'on this side,' and its opposites ultra, 'on that side,' 'beyond,' and trans, ' across,' take the accusative.

Circa, circum, 'around' or 'about,' express approximate nearness in space or time. The derivative circiter denotes indefinite time or number. These take the accusative.

(e) Contra, erga.

Contra, 'against,' and its opposite erga, 'towards' (of affection), take the accusative.

(f) Juxta, ob, pěnes, prope, propter,

Juxta, ‘close to,' and penes, 'in the power of,' approach in meaning to apud, and take the accusative.

Ob properly means circumposition at some height from the ground, i. e. 'upon' (whence op-timus, 'uppermost'), but is practically used, like propter, with the accusative, to signify 'on account of.' Ob also means 'before,' and propter, like prope, from which it is derived, and which also takes the accusative, signifies 'near.'

(g) Per, prae, praeter, pro.

Per denotes 'through,' either in space or time, or as the instrument. It takes the accusative.

Pro, which signifies 'for,' 'before,' or 'proportionally to,' and prae, which denotes 'before,' 'in comparison with,' and 'owing to,' take the ablative. The derivative praeter, 'before,' 'beside,' 'beyond,' or 'except,' takes the accusative.

(h) Cum, pone, post, secundum, sine.

Post, 'after,' 'behind,' or 'since,' and pone, 'behind,' take the

accusative.

Cum, 'with,' and sine, without,' take the ablative.

Secundum, 'along,' 'according to,' 'following the course of,' sometimes agrees in meaning with cum, and sometimes with post. It takes the accusative.

(i) Clam, coram.

Clam, without the knowledge of,' 'concealed from,' stands in a sort of opposition to coram, 'in the presence of,' 'before the eyes of,' and both take the ablative.

(k) Infra, sub, subter, super, supra.

Sub, 'under,' and super, 'above,' take the accusative when they denote motion, and the ablative when they imply rest. Supra, 'above,' is always used with the accusative, and subter, ‘under,' generally with the accusative, but occasionally with the ablative. Infra, beneath,' is always construed with the accusative.

110 It may be desirable to illustrate by a few examples the distinctions in meaning of those prepositions, which are most nearly synonymous, in regard to the English prepositions by which they are generally expressed.

(a) The preposition 'from' may be used to render by a (ab), abs, de, e (ex), but with marked differences of meaning or reference. For a refers to the exterior, or to the thing regarded as a whole; de to an elevation; and e (ex), generally and properly, to the interior. These distinctions are given in the following passage: Quum de vi interdicitur, duo genera causarum esse intelligebant, ad quæ interdictum pertineret; unum si qui ex eo loco, in quo esset; alterum si ab eo loco, quo veniret, vi dejectus esset...Si qui meam familiam de meo fundo dejecerit, ex eo loco me dejecerit. Si qui mihi præsto fuerit cum armatis hominibus extra meum fundum, et me introire prohibuerit; non ex eo loco, sed ab eo loco me dejecerit... Unde utrumque declarat, et ex quo loco, et a quo loco. Unde dejectus Cinna? Ex urbe. Unde dejecti Galli? A Capitolio. Unde qui cum Graccho fuerunt? Ex Capitolio, &c. Cic. Caecin. 30.

(b) Ad, apud, penes, juxta, propter may all be rendered by the synonymous expressions 'at,' 'with,' 'by,' or 'close by;' but with these distinctions: ad denotes the approximation or proximity chiefly with reference to place or time; apud denotes approximation or proximity chiefly with reference to a person; penes, which is limited to a person, implies not only proximity, but dependence on his will or power; juxta, for which Cicero uses propter, is used only with inanimate objects. Thus, Deinde iter faciam ad exercitum, ut circiter Idus Sextiles putem me ad Iconium fore. Cic. ad div. III. 5. Ab hora octava ad vesperum secreto collocuti sumus. Cic. Att. vII. 8. Fuisti apud Leccam illa nocte. Cic. Cat. 1. 4. Hoc apud Platonem est in philosophos dictum. Cic. Off. 1. 9. Apud eosdem judices reus est factus. Cic. Cluent. 22. Hi servi centum dies penes accusatorem (in his house, in his power) quum fuissent, ab eo ipso accusatore producti sunt. Cic. Mil. 22. Eloquentia non modo eos ornat, penes quos est, sed etiam universam rem publicam. Cic. Or. 41. Atticus sepultus est juxta viam Appiam ad quintum lapidem. Nep. Att. 22. Propter Platonis statuam consedimus. Cic. Brut. 6.

(c) Adversus, in, contra may all be rendered by 'against,' and adversus, in, erga may all be rendered 'towards,' a rendering, which, in a certain sense, may also be applied to contra; but while adversus (and versus) or in may retain their original meaning of actual motion towards a place, contra and erga, especially the latter, are used in a secondary sense, namely, contra implies 'against' or 'towards,' in a hostile signification, erga has this meaning with a friendly reference. Adversus and in may be used generally in the expression of kindly feelings or the reverse. Thus, Quonam modo me gererem adversus Cæsarem, usus tuo consilio sum. Cic. ad div. XI. 27. Manlius perindulgens fuit in patrem; idem acerbe severus in filium. Cic. Off. III. 31. Te ex Asia Romam versus profectum esse constabat. Cic. ad divers. 11. 6. Detrahere aliquid alteri est contra naturam. Cic. Off. III. 5. Ea nos utimur pro salute bonorum contra amentiam perditorum. Cic. Mil. 5. Præcipiunt, ut eodem modo erga amicos affecti simus, quo erga nosmet ipsos. Cic. Am. 16.

(d) Ante, prae, coram may all be rendered 'before;' but while ante signifies 'before' in space or time, prae is 'before' with an implication of direct contrast and comparison; and coram is used