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CHAPTER XXII.

OF PREPOSITIONS.

A SUBSTANTIVE and a verb are sufficient to form a sentence; but there are, generally, accessory circumstances which require to be expressed. If the verb, for instance, be transitive, the word on which it falls may be specified, and is either a noun or a pronoun in the accusative case: or it may be the infinitive of another verb, which is in fact a noun. The manner of the performance may be stated by an adverb; and the qualities of the substantives may be marked by adjectives. Besides, every substantive or thing must stand at a certain point, and occupy a particular portion of space, which can only be defined by referring to the place occupied by objects already known. Words that express the situation of one noun with respect to another, either really or metaphorically, are Prepositions ; and, though used to denote general relations, must originally have been the names of objects or of actions. The expression of situation is their distinguishing characteristic; and, as this is only observable from the conjunction, or from the degree of separation, of things, it is on comparison alone that their being depends. We say that one thing is in or out; before or after; on or off; to or from; on this side or on that, of another; and such words and phrases are what Grammarians have called Prepositions. Their name suggests no idea

of their nature. The Latin derivation from præ, before, and positus, set or placed, might, in our language, be equally well applied to adjectives; for they, too, are placed before nouns. The order of arrangement is different among different nations. The adjectives in French, and the prepositions in Turkish and Hungarian, seldom precede, but generally follow, the substantives with which they are connected in construction: this is also sometimes the case in English.

"If, in place of having recourse to Prepositions, we had given to every substantive, and to every particular modification of it, a different termination for every new relation which it was necessary to express, we should have had a considerable number of cases, as in the language of Peru, and we should have had no Prepositions. This is not a mere hypothesis: the Basque tongue is absolutely without Prepositions, and expresses, by different terminations, which are real cases, all the relations which we designate by Prepositions."*

In the Greek, Latin, and other languages which have declensions from their nouns, Prepositions are said to govern, respectively, one or other of the cases; and, in English, when followed by a pronoun, it is usually in the objective state. This government, which one word exercises over another, is merely figurative. The case of a noun does not depend upon the preceding verb or preposition. The governing and the governed are collateral and corresponding effects of the same cause, the state of the different objects in the mind of the writer. When a substantive is the subject of the verb, it is announced by its name, or nominative. * ESTARAC, Gram. Gen. tom. i.

In every other state it must be attended by words that express its situation; otherwise such words must be understood. These when separate are termed Prepositions, and when added to the noun they form declensions. When we say 'John went after him,' it is not because it follows the word after that the pronoun is in the accusative, but because the person represented by the word him is not considered as an actor in the sentence; otherwise we should say 'John went after he went,' making two assertions in place of one, and metamorphosing the preposition after into an adverb.

The nominative in a sentence is never preceded by a preposition. It is the prominent personage in the picture, and is otherwise sufficiently distinguished. When we allude to its filling a subordinate part on some other occasion, we introduce a relative pronoun, to which a preposition is referred; and, in such a case, the preposition may either go before or after that relative: thus, He, of whom you spoke, came here yesterday;' or 'He, whom you spoke of, came here yesterday.' The clause' of whom you spoke,' or whom you spoke of,' is parenthetical,-it is a contracted note of reference, and might even have been placed at the bottom of the page. In such phrases as The things you wished for are arrived; The gentleman you wrote to is here,' &c. a relative (that, which, or whom,) is always understood.

The greater part of the Prepositions have passed under our review, when treating of adverbs and conjunctions. We shall here speak of the others, referring for more complete illustration to our " Analytical Dictionary."

ABOUT; AROUND; ROUND.

About is the Saxon abutan, or onbuton, (on-be-utan,) on the outside; on the confines of any place, or time. In consequence, the word signifies near to, or close upon, and, metaphorically, concerning. When we say that a certain village is about seven miles from London, we do not ascertain the site of the village; for there is a whole line of circumference around London, all parts of which are equally distant from that capital. It is hence that about is sometimes reckoned synonymous with around. London is about seven miles distant from this village' is a definite expression; because 'London' and this village' are, in this case, fixed stations. From what we have said, the application of the prepositions Round and Around will be obvious. They differ from About in not being confined to the circumference of the surrounded space: they may be either near or distant, provided they be within the circle of our ken.

NIGH, NIGHER, NIghest,

NEAR, NEAREr, Nearest,

are words that express vicinity, and the gradual approach to contiguity with respect to other things, whether in time or place. The two synonymes have the same origin, and scarcely differ in their usage. Both are used adverbially; but Near is more readily chosen when we look for an adjective. It has, in addition, the adverb NEARLY, which is distinguishable from ALMOST (mostly all) by a very slight shade. We speak of a 'near residence' and of our nearest relations,' in which cases, nigh and nighest, though once common, would now be awkward substitutes. NEXT, (the Saxon

M

superlative neahgest, next,) is merely another orthography of Nighest; but custom has given it a more varied application. Nighest, or Nearest, is the greatest degree of NEARNESS (formerly NIGHNESS) as compared with other objects that are also in the vicinity; but Next is that order existing between two objects only, whether in place or succession, in which no third one intervenes. 'I shall see you next week' means 'on the immediately following week;' but the speaker does not advert to the comparison of Nearness between that and any of the weeks that may succeed it, which he must have done had he said, 'on the nearest week,' or, 'on the nighest week.' It will be observed, too, that ' on the' precedes the latter cases, whereas 'next week' has neither a preposition nor an article.

Although Far, Farther, and Farthest are the counterparts of Near, Nigh, Nearer, &c. yet custom has so far distinguished the latter as to allow them to express the degrees of approximation to an object either with, or without, the intervention of the particle to; and, consequently, in this latter usage they have been considered as prepositions. We say, indifferently, he was near to London before he met with the accident,' or, he was near London before,' &c.; he sat next to me,' or he sat next me:' but we cannot say he was far London,' &c. or that he sat farthest me:'-for, in these cases, we must interpose the preposition from. By the interjection of to and from, the words return to the state of adverbs.

WITH.-BY.

These prepositions are of similar origin, and therefore, in practical usage, they are often confounded.