"William has

"He lives free from care."-" He lives freely at another's expense." grown (has become) great by his wisdom."-"He has grown greatly in repute." "The statement seems (to be) exact."-" The statement seems exactly in point." "It makes the plough go deep or shallow." This, as well as similar expressions, is elliptical; it may be expressed thus, "It makes the plough cut a deep or shallow furrow." "The plums taste sour" have a sour taste. "Correct thy heart, and all will go right;"

"The rose smells sweet;" is sweet. *How black the clouds looked;" were. that is, "be right."

An adverb sometimes qualifies a whole clause; as, " Fortunately for us, the night was clear."

The adjective such is applied to nouns; as, "Such a scholar is seldom seen;" the adverb so, to adjectives, verbs, or adverbs; as, So great a scholar is seldom seen;" "I never saw trees so large."

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1. This distinction, however, is not always observed when the noun is in the plural number; for, we frequently say, "We rarely hear of such brave men."

2. Substantives are often used as adjectives; as, "A stone cistern;" "A silver watch."

Sometimes the adjective becomes a substantive; as, "The chief good."

Position of the Adjective.

The adjective is generally placed before its substantive; as, "A generous man." The following cases are exceptions to this Rule:

1st. When some word or words are dependent on the adjective; as, " Knowledge requisite for a statesman."

2nd. When the adjective is emphatical; as, "Alfred the Great."

3rd. When several adjectives belong to one substantive, they may either precede or follow the substantive; as, "A learned, wise, and amiable man" or, "A man learned, wise, and amiable." The longest adjective is generally placed the last.

4th. When the adjective is preceded by an adverb; as, "A man conscientiously exact.'

When time, number, or dimension is specified, the adjective follows; as, "He is four years old," "An army twenty thousand strong;" "A wall three feet thick."

5th. The verb to be often separates the noun from its adjective; as, "Gaming is ruinous."

6th. When the adjective expresses some circumstance of a substantive placed after an active transitive verb; as, "Vanity often renders a man despicable."

7th. In an exclamatory sentence, the adjective generally precedes the substantive; as, "How contemptible are the pursuits of the gay !" "Great is our God." Sometimes the word all is emphatically put after a number of particulars comprehended under it; as, "Ambition, honour, interest, all concurred."

RULE 9. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

Pronouns must agree with the nouns which they represent, in gender, number, and person; as, "Catiline and his party were despicable." "The boys were attentive to their lessons."

1. In the following sentence, "You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song, Till nobly rises, emulous thy own;" the pronouns you and thy refer to the same person, and should therefore be in the same number; thus, "Till nobly rises emulous your own."

2. When a part of a sentence is the antecedent to a pronoun, the pronoun must be in the neuter gender, singular number, and third person; as, "Eli was too indulgent to his sons, which was a sin."

Note 1. The noun and its pronoun must not be employed as nominatives to the same verb; thus, "The boy he is good," should be, "The boy is good."

Also, the noun and its pronoun must not be the objective to the same verb; thus, "The people, the Lord has destroyed them," them is superfluous.

2. a. Personal pronouns must not be used for the definitives these and those. Personal pronouns are used instead of nouns; but these and those always have nouns, either expressed or understood; it is, therefore, improper to say, "Give me them books;" we should say, "Give me those books.'

b. At the beginning of a sentence, and also when there is no particular reference to an antecedent, they is generally used in preference to those; thus, "They that are diligent will generally succeed;" is better than, "Those that are diligent." But when there is a reference to objects previously noticed, these or those must be used.

Sometimes, however, they is used, when reference is made to an antecedent; as, Punctuality and industry are of great value. They deserve to be cultivated."

3. It is and it was, are often used in a plural construction, to express the persons or things which may be the cause of any effect or event; as, "It was the seditious that caused the disturbance." It would, however, be better to say, "The seditious caused the disturbance."

When the cause of any effect or event is not implied, this mode of expression must not be used; thus, "It is true his assertions, though they are paradoxical," should be, "His assertions are true, though they are paradoxical."

4. The words than and as do not govern any case of a personal pronoun following them, but the pronoun is either the nominative case to a verb, or the objective governed by a verb or preposition; thus, we say, He is as good as she;" that is, as she is." "He respected him more than me;” that is, more than he respected me."

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Were we to say, "He respected him more than I;" it would mean, "than I respected him."

The word than is commonly, but erroneously, followed by the objective of the relative; as, than whom. See p. 85, Note 12.

5. The interjections, O! Oh! Ah! are followed by the objective case of a pronoun of the first person; as, "Oh me!” “Ah me!" but by the nominative case of the pronoun in the second person; as, "O thou, who dwellest."

Oh is used to express the emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise, and is detached from the word; as, "Oh! the deceitfulness of sin !"'

O is used to express wishing, exclamation, or a direct address to a person, and is generally prefixed only to a noun or pronoun; as, "O virtue!"

6. In the position of the personal pronouns, the second person should be placed before the third; as, "Thou and he were present;" but the first person must be placed the last; as, "He and I;" "You and I.”

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes understood; thus, we say, "As appears ;" that is, "as it appears." It is sometimes employed to express-First, The subject of any discourse or inquiry; as, "It has happened unfortunately;" "Who was it that spoke to him?" Second, The state or condition of any person or thing; as, "How is it with you?" Third, The persons or things that may be the cause of any effect or event; as, "It was I;" "It was thou;" "It was he who did it;" "It was either the man or woman that spoke;" "It was he who assisted them."

The relative must be in the same number and person as its antecedent, and the verb must agree with it accordingly; as, "He is unworthy of confidence who has betrayed his trust." "The men, who officiated, were very kind."

In the former sentence, he is the antecedent, and who the relative; in the latter sentence, men is the antecedent, and who the relative. The relative is of the same gender as its antecedent; but, in English, it undergoes no variation of form to express either gender or number.

1. a. The relative must be in the nominative case, when it is the subject of the verb; and this generally occurs, when no nominative case comes between it and the verb; as, "The teacher, who instructs us, is an amiable man."

Here, no nominative case comes between who and instructs; who is the subject of the verb, and must, therefore, be in the nominative case.

The young pupil must observe, that the relative does not agree with its antecedent in case; the antecedent may be in one case, while the relative may, according to circumstances, be in another. When both the antecedent and the relative are nominatives, the relative agrees with the verb next to it, and the antecedent with the latter; as, "He, who is not industrious, rarely prospers." Here, the antecedent is he, and agrees with the latter verb prospers, while who, the relative, agrees with is, the verb placed next to it.

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b. The relative must be in the possessive case when it denotes the possessor; as, He, whose creatures we are, is almighty;" and in the objective case, when it is the object of a verb or preposition; as, He, whom we serve, and to whom we owe our existence, is eternal."

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2. Who is applied to persons; as, "William, who;" "The man, who."

Who is not applied, however, to collective nouns, signifying unity of idea, though they imply persons; thus, "France, who was in alliance with Sweden;""The cavalry who," ought to be, "France which," "The cavalry which." But when plurality of idea is implied, the relative who is employed; as, "The committee, who were divided in their sentiments, have referred the business to the general meeting."

"The

3. Which is applied to infants, irrational animals, and inanimate things; as, "The child which I saw ;" bird which he killed;" "The book which was stolen."

When the proper names of little children are mentioned, who must be used; as, "The little child John, whom we saw."

Which is employed in interrogations when the noun either is or is not mentioned; as, "Which of the three?" "Which man said so?" But who, in interrogations, is always used without a noun; as, "Who has seen it ?"

Which is often improperly used for that; thus, "After which event," should be, "After that event."

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4. a. Whose is common both to persons and things; as, Man, whose condition." Pleasure, whose nature;" or, more generally, "the nature of which." Howard, whose name is another word for benevolence."

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b. Who must never be used for whose and its governing noun; thus, "It is no wonder if such a man did not shine at the court of Queen Elizabeth, who was but another name for prudence and economy;" should be, "whose name was but another word for prudence," &c.

5. That is frequently applied both to persons and things; as, "He is a man that deserves respect;""Logic is an art that teaches us to reason properly." That is also used to prevent the too frequent repetition of who and which.

That is generally used after the words all, same, some, and any, after a superlative, the interrogative who, and ordinal adjectives; as, "All that hear him.'

"The most honourable man that you have mentioned." "Who, that has common sense, will believe it?" "He is the fourth that has fallen."

That is also used when persons form only a part of the antecedent; as, "The men and things that he has studied, have not improved his morals."

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6. a. The word what must not be employed for that; thus, They would not believe but what I was the guilty person;" should be, “but that I was the guilty person.

b. That must never be used for what; thus, "We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen," should be, "We speak what we do know, and testify what we have

1. The sentence, "They would not believe but that I was the guilty person," may be thus explained:-"They would not believe any thing, except that thing, namely, I was the guilty person." In cases of this kind, the pupil who has carefully studied the definitions of that and what, as given under the Etymology of Pronouns, will find no difficulty in properly applying them.

2. The word somewhat appears to be sometimes used in the sense of an adverb; the word rather is, however, preferable; thus, "He spoke in somewhat a harsh manner," would be better if written, "He spoke in a rather harsh manner;" or, "He spoke in a manner rather harsh."

3. The words represented by a compound pronoun are frequently in different cases; as, "Let us examine what or that which has been sent;" here, that is in the objective, governed by examine, and which is the nominative to has been sent.

7. The pronouns whichsoever and whatsoever, and the adverb howsoever, may be divided by the interposition of the corresponding words; thus, "On whichsoever side he looked," would sound better if written, "On which side soever he looked."

The words whoever, whatever, whosoever, and however, cannot be divided; we properly say, "Whoever acts so, acts improperly;" "Whatever he does, he does well;" "Whosoever committeth sin, is the servant of sin;" ""However great he may be."

8. To prevent ambiguity, the relative must generally be placed next to its antecedent; thus, "The master punished the boy for idleness, who never chastises without a reason," should be, “The master, who never chastises without a reason, punished the boy for idleness.”

9. When there are two antecedents, of different persons, the relative generally agrees with the latter; as, "You are the friend who has often relieved me."

Regard must always be had to the sense intended; thus, "I am the man who command you," means, that I who command you am the man previously mentioned; I who command is here the subject, and man the predicate. But the sentence, "I am the man who commands you," signifies, that I am your regular commander. Here, I is the subject, and man who commands the predicate.

b. In scripture language, and particularly when we address the Deity, the relative is frequently made to agree with the former of two antecedents; as, "Thou art the Lord, who seest us in all our ways."

10. The same antecedent requires the same relative to be preserved throughout the sentence. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate; "I am the father who loves you, that cherishes you, that provides for you;" should be, “I am the father who loves you, who cherishes you, who provides for you."

The verb must also agree with the same relative as its nominative throughout the sentence; thus, "I am the Lord that maketh all things, that stretcheth forth the heavens alone, and spread abroad the earth," is incorrect; it should be, "I am the Lord that maketh all things, that stretcheth forth the heavens, and spreadeth abroad the