to be placed next to the verb; as, riches were injurious to him.

"Neither poverty nor

If a particular emphasis is intended, the verb must be expressed before each nominative; as, "Neither was poverty, nor were riches injurious to him." And also, whenever the verb has been expressed before the first nominative, it is generally repeated to the second; as, "Neither was his pronunciation, nor were his gestures agreeable. In interrogative sentences, however, the verb, for the sake of brevity, is not usually repeated; thus, "Has neither the Duke, nor his servants appeared ?**

RULE 4. A NOUN OF MULTITUDE.

When a noun of multitude conveys unity of idea, the verb and pronoun should be singular; as, "The nation is powerful."

But when it conveys plurality of idea, the verb and pronoun must be plural; as, "The committee were divided in

their sentiments."

ILLUSTRATION.-When the persons or things included under the collective term, are represented as taken collectively, the verb must be singular; as, "The fleet was seen sailing up the channel." But when the persons or things thus comprehended are intended to be represented individually, the verb is plural; as, "The committee were divided."

The following nouns of multitude have always a plural verb; namely, people, mankind, nobility, gentry, peasantry, generality, commonalty. The following have generally a plural, though sometimes a singular verb:-Aristocracy, auditory, public. The following have a singular :-Remnant and church.-See 7, p. 17; and 9, p. 18.

CONCORD, GOVERNMENT, AND ARRANGEMENT.

RULE 5. ARTICLES.

a. The article a or an is used before nouns in the singular number, to signify that one, but not a particular one, is intended; as, "A book;" 66 an army ;" 66 a thousand."

b. The is used before nouns both in the singular and the plural number, to indicate that some particular person or thing is meant; as, "I saw the king;" "Write the letters."

c. A noun without an article before it, is generally taken in its widest sense, as comprehending the whole of its species; as, "Man is mortal;" "Gold is ductile;" that is, all mankind, all gold.

1. According to this Rule, the article is omitted before the names of the different virtues, vices, passions, qualities, arts, sciences, metals, herbs, &c.

2. When I say, "Eagles are birds of prey," I mean all eagles; but, when I say, "The eagle is a bird of prey," I imply that birds are subdivided into species or sorts, and that the eagle is one of them. So, also, when I say, "The horse is a noble animal," I distinguish one species of animals from another.

3. Sometimes a noun without an article before it is used elliptically, having a qualifying word understood; as, "There are men destitute of shame;" that is, "There are some men."

Note 1. The omission of a or an before such words as few, little, and others expressing a small number or quantity, shows that the number or quantity implied by the adjectives is very limited; as, "His conduct was so irregular that he gained few friends," meaning a very small number indeed. But the insertion of a or an before such

words increases the quantity; as, "His conduct was so just that he gained a few friends," meaning some.

This Rule is in strict accordance with the general principle, that a word without an article prefixed is taken in its widest sense, while one having an article prefixed is modified in its meaning.

2. a. When several adjectives are applied to different subjects having one common name, the article must be repeated before each adjective; as, "A blue and a yellow flag were flying;" meaning one of each kind, a blue flag and a yellow flag.

1. Even in those words in the use of which no ambiguity could occur, attention must be paid to this Rule; thus, were I to say, "The singular and plural number;" "The Old and New Testament," my meaning would not be misunderstood, because a number cannot be both singular and plural, nor a testament both old and new. We must, however, conform to the Rule, and say, "The singular and the plural number;" "The Old and the New Testament."

2. When only one thing of each sort is intended, the substantive should not be pluralized; as, "The French and the English frigate fought off Sicily;" meaning only one of each nation. When more than one of each sort are intended, the substantive is pluralized; as, "The French and the English frigates fought off Sicily;" meaning more than one of each nation.

b. When the adjectives are descriptive of the same thing, the article is not repeated, but placed only before the first adjective; as, "A blue and yellow flag;" meaning a flag that is both blue and yellow. "The amiable and learned instructor."

Several adjectives, however, though applied to the same subject, when a particular emphasis is intended, or when one adjective begins with a consonant and the other with a vowel, may admit an article before each, if no ambiguity would occur; as, "The learned, the eloquent, and the patriotic Chatham;" "A just and an amiable man." In ordinary conversation we should say, "The learned, eloquent, and patriotic Chatham;" "A just and amiable man."

3. a. In the same manner, when two or more nouns are intended to denote different persons or things, the article is repeated before each; but when the nouns are confined to one thing, the article must not be repeated.

Thus, "Cincinnatus the dictator, and the master of the horse, were marching against the Æqui," denotes that two persons are intended, the dictator and the mas

ter of the horse, and this distinction is pointed out by inserting the article before each noun. But, in the sentence, "James, the son of Zebedee and brother of John, was present," only one person is intended, he who was the son of Zebedee and brother of John, and therefore the article is omitted before the word brother.

b. In denoting comparison also, when two or more persons are intended, the article is repeated before each, but when only one person is intended, the article is not repeated.

Thus, "He is a better soldier than a scholar," signifies, "He is a better soldier than a scholar would be;" but when we say, "He is a better soldier than scholar," we limit the term soldier and scholar to one person, and mean, that "He makes a better soldier than he does a scholar."

4. The is used before adjectives in the superlative degree, when a particular sense is intended; as, "The happiest man ;" and before comparatives when equality of excess is intended; as, "The more you study, the more learned you will become;" that is, " "By how much the more you study, by so much the more learned you will become."

1. "A most eminent physician," means one of the number of the most eminent. "The most eminent physician," denotes that this individual alone is the most distinguished.

2. The sometimes supplies the place of a personal pronoun; as, "He looked him in the face;" for "in his face."

5. The is sometimes repeated before titles; as, "The worshipful the Mayor." But titles, when taken in their widest acceptation, have no article prefixed; as, "He obtained the title of Duke."

We can properly say, He became or was made an Earl, a Baron, a Duke, &c.; that is, one of the Earls, Barons, Dukes, &c.

The is generally placed between a noun and the ordinal number denoting a series of kings; as, " George the Fourth."

6. When a relative clause is determinative or restrictive, the antecedent noun must have the article the, or the definitive that or those, prefixed to it; as, "The man, or that man, who endures to the end, shall be saved."

That is, not every man shall be saved, but only he who endures to the end. When the relative clause is merely explanatory and not restrictive, the noun is rarely, though sometimes, preceded by an article; thus, "Godliness, which, with contentment, is great gain, has the promise both of the present life and of that which is to come." Here, the clause, which, with contentment, is great gain," points to a certain property in the antecedent godliness, but does not restrain its signification.

7. In ordinary discourse, the article is prefixed to the first of several nouns used in the same construction, and omitted before the rest; as, "The sun and moon were in conjunction." But, when emphasis is intended, the article must be repeated before each; as, "The sun, the moon, and the stars, were created by the Almighty."

A or an is sometimes used for each or every; as, "Sixpence a dozen ;” “A guinea a week;" that is, each dozen, each week.

8. The article is omitted, not only before nouns taken in their widest sense; as, "Man is mortal;" but, also, before words that are sufficiently determinate in their signification; as, "Parliament is assembled;" "Government is determined to persevere;" "A pound of cheese."

Custom allows, in some familiar expressions, but not in others, the omission of the article; as, "I am in haste," "He is in a hurry." The phrase, "He is at school,' means, "He is at some school receiving instruction;" but, "He is at the school,' signifies, "He is at some particular one."

9. Neither pronouns nor proper names must have articles before them; except, first, when a particular family is alluded to; as, "He was a Johnson;" that is, of the family of the Johnsons. Secondly, when particular distinction is implied; as, "A Cicero," meaning, an eloquent man. Thirdly, when a common name is understood; as, (river) Thames;" "The (ship) Neptune;" "The pious (man) David."

"The

The article a or an before a proper name is frequently used to show that the individual thus spoken of, is either not much known, or not much thought of; as, “A Mr. Thompson spoke."

The article is generally placed before the adjective; as, "A just man." When the words as, so, too, how, connected with adjectives, and the word such, precede a noun, the article is placed between them and the noun; as, "Such a man;' "Too glorious a cause." The word all precedes the article; as, "All the men."

RULE 6. NOUNS.

Nouns and pronouns coming together, and signifying the same thing, are put in the same case; as, William, the king."

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1. Two or more nouns in apposition (that is, in the same case), and forming one complex name, or a name and title, have generally, when speaking of them or to them, the plural termination annexed only to the name; as, Miss Howards were present;"Mr. Thompsons were there." When speaking of them in a particular manner, we generally prefix the article; thus, "The Miss Howards."

In addressing letters, however, to several individuals of the same name, we pluralize the title; "To the Misses Howard;" "To Messrs. Thompson." But both in conversation and in addressing letters, we pluralize only the name of married ladies, as, "The Mrs. Wilsons were there;"" To the Mrs. Howards."

2. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a part of a sentence; as, “You write very carelessly, a habit which you must correct."

Note. A noun or pronoun which answers a question must be in the same case as the noun which asks it; as, "Who speaks ?” “I;” that is, I speak. "Whose books are these?" "John's;" that is, They are John's.

RULE 7.

When two nouns come together, one signifying the possessor, the other the thing possessed, the noun denoting the

H

possessor must be in the possessive case; as, "My father's house;" "A Christian's hope."

When the thing possessed is known, it is usually omitted; as, "I called at the bookseller's;" that is, "at his shop." So, also, "We have been to St. Paul's;" that is, "church." Here, church being dedicated to St. Paul, is considered as belonging to him.

Substantives govern pronouns as well as nouns, in the possessive case; as, "Every tree is known by its fruit."

As the possessive sign, 's, is a contraction of es or is, and not a corruption of his, it is improper to say," John his book," for " John's book."

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Note 1. When the thing possessed belongs to two or more possessives only conjointly, the sign of the possessive is annexed only to the last noun; as, John, Thomas, and James's house;" that is, a house forming the joint possession of these three persons.

But when the thing possessed is the individual or separate property of two or more possessors, the sign of the possessive is put after each noun; as, "The emperor's and the king's forces were separated only by a valley ;" that is, the forces of the emperor and those of the king.

1. Also, when comparison is intended, or when several words come between the possessives, the sign must be annexed to each; as, " They are William's as well as Thomas's books;' "Not a day's nor even an hour's unnecessary delay will take place." In such expressions as the following, "Thomas's and William's wives were present," it would be better to say, "The wives of Thomas and William were present;" because the former expression might imply that each man had more wives

than one.

2. In cases in which any ambiguity would occur, the use of the possessive should be avoided. Thus, if we say, agreeably to the first part of this note, "Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob's posterity were carried captive to Babylon," one unacquainted with the history of these patriarchs might consider that the patriarch Abraham, the patriarch Isaac, and the posterity of Jacob, were carried captive. Nor will the insertion of the preposition always prevent the ambiguity. For if, instead of posterity, we substitute descendants, and say, "The descendants of Abraham, of Isaac, and of Jacob," the expression would imply three distinct families of these three individuals. But if we say,The common posterity of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, were carried captive to Babylon," all ambiguity of expression is prevented. So, also, when I say, "I am acquainted with the prince and king's attendants," my meaning is very different from "the prince's and king's attendants," or "the attendants of the prince and those of the king."

2. In poetry, when the word ends in s or x, the possessive singular is frequently formed by adding only the apostrophe, and omitting the additional s, in the same manner as in substantives of the plural number ending in s; as, "Achilles' wrath."

In prose also, when we wish to prevent too much of the hissing sound, the s after the apostrophe is generally omitted, when the first noun ends with s, or with the sound of s in each of its two last syllables, and the second noun begins with s; as, "For conscience' sake;" For righteousness'