verb; pleasure, pleasurableness, the nouns; pleasant, pleasurable, the adjectives; and pleasantly, pleasurably, the adverbs, though different in their application, and modified in their meaning by the changes which they undergo, yet are all expressive of the same leading idea.

The leading principles which determine the affinity of words in respect of origin, are identity of letters, or letters of the same organ, and identity of signification, that is, a signification obviously deducible from the same sense. Letters of the same organ are letters or articulations formed by the same parts of the mouth; thus, b, m, and p are formed by the lips alone; ƒ and v are formed by the lips with the assistance of the upper teeth. Letters of the same organ are commutable, that is, they are, in derivation, frequently interchanged the one for the other.

2. Primary Signification of Words.

All words were at first used only in one sense, but, from various causes, they are now frequently employed in very different acceptations.

Many retain their primary or original sense along with a secondary meaning; while others, on the contrary, have lost their primary signification, and retain merely their secondary or accidental import.

A word can have only one primary, but it may have several secondary meanings. The primary meaning of a word, when discovered, furnishes a key by which the remotest of its secondary meanings can be explained.

Thus, heat and hate, though at present very differently applied, are, according to Dr. Webster, radically the same word, being derived from the Saxon root, hatian, to heat or agitate, to be hot.

Words pass from original to secondary applications, according to the following Rules :

1. Words which primarily denote the properties of matter, are extended to describe the analogous mental and moral qualities. Thus, Sanguine (from sanguis, blood) signifies primarily, red, like blood; secondarily, ardent.

2. Words are often transferred from one object to another, which has some resemblance, real or supposed, to the former. Thus, the Latin granum, a grain of corn (whence the English grain), is the parent of granite, a stone spotted as if with grains.

3. Words of a generic signification are often restricted in their application to a specific object or idea. Thus, Deist, which primarily denotes one who has or admits a God, is now appropriated to one who believes in a God, but rejects Christianity. 4. Other words, originally specific, become general terms. Thus, Philippic, the name of the orations in which Demosthenes inveighed against Philip of Macedon, is now used to denote invective in general.

5. In many words, the change from one meaning to another, consists merely in a slight deflection or difference of application. Thus,

From the Latin primus, first, are deduced

Prime, early, first rate. To prime, to put the first powder in the pan of a gun. Primer, a first book for children. Premier, the first minister of state. Primate, the first or highest ecclesiastic. Primitive, ancient.

Prim (from primitive), formal, precise. Primrose, an early flower in spring.

6. Many words owe their secondary sense to purely accidental and often very siugular associations. Thus,

Atlas, a collection of maps, is derived from Atlas, an African king, who, from his fondness for astronomy, is said to have supported the heavens on his back, and whose portrait in this attitude is often prefixed to books of maps.

Dactyl, a foot in verse, consisting of one long and two short syllables, is from dactylos (Gr.), a finger,—a finger consisting of one long and two short joints.

Additional information on this and the other portions of Derivation, will be derived by consulting Black's Student's Guide; Oswald's Etymological Dictionary; Booth's Analytical Dictionary; and Webster's Dictionary.

A few Extracts, intended to exhibit the progressive improvement of the English language, from the period in which Wickliffe flourished to the present.

Wickliffe, born 1324, died 1384.

Oure Fadir that art in Hevenes, hallowid be thi Name. Thi Kingdom come to. Be thi will doon in erthe as in hevene, &c.

Chaucer, born 1328, died 1400.

Alas! I wepying am constrained to begin verse of sorrowfull matter, that whilom in florishyng studie made delitable ditees. For lo! rendying muses of a Poetes enditen to me thinges to be written, and drerie teres.

Richard Hooker, born 1553, died 1600.

They of whom God is altogether unapprehended, are but few in number, and for grossness of parts such, that they hardly and scarcely seem to hold the place of human beings. These we should judge to be of all others most miserable, but a wretcheder sort there are, on whom whereas nature hath bestowed riper capacity, their evil disposition seriously goeth about therewith to apprehend God, as being not God. Whereby it cometh to pass, that of these two sorts of men, both godless, the one having utterly no knowledge of God, the other study how to persuade themselves that there is no such thing to be known.-Ecclesiastical Polity.

Lord Bacon, born 1561, died 1626.

OF STUDIES.

Crafty men contemn studies; simple men admire them; and wise men use them; for they teach not their own use; but that is a wisdom without them, and above them, and won by observation. Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly and with diligence and attention. Some books also may be read by deputy, and extracts made of them by others; but that would be only in the less important arguments, and the meaner sort of books; else distilled books are like common distilled waters, flashy things. Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man. And therefore, if a man write little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer little, he had need have a present wit; and if he read little, he had need have much cunning, to seem to know that he doth not. Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics, subtile; natural philosophy, deep; moral, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to contend.-Essays.

John Milton, born 1608, died 1674.

The end of learning is, to repair the ruin of our first parents, by regaining to know God aright, and out of that knowledge to love him, to imitate him, to be like

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him, as we may the nearest by possessing our souls of true virtue, which, being united to the heavenly grace of faith, makes up the highest perfection. But because our understanding cannot in this body found itself but on sensible things, nor arrive so clearly to the knowledge of God and things invisible, as by orderly conning over the visible and inferior creatures, the same method is necessarily to be followed in discreet teaching.-Tractate of Education.

John Dryden, born 1631, died 1700.

'Tis not only commended by ancient practice, to celebrate the memory of great and worthy men, as the best thanks which posterity can pay them; but also the examples of virtue are of more vigour, when they are thus contracted into individuals. As the sun-beams, united in a burning glass to a point, have greater force than when they are darted from a plane superficies; so, the virtues and actions of one man, drawn together in a single story, strike upon our minds a stronger and more lively impression, than the scatter'd relations of many men, and many actions; and by the same means they give us pleasure, they afford us profit too.-Life of Plutarch.

Addison, born 1664, died 1721.

Man, considered in himself, is a very helpless and very wretched being. He is subject every moment to the greatest calamities and misfortunes. He is beset with dangers on all sides, and may become unhappy by numberless casualties, which he could not foresee, nor have prevented, had he foreseen them. It is our comfort, while we are obnoxious to so many accidents, that we are under the care of One who directs contingencies, and has in his hands the management of every thing that is capable of annoying or offending us; who knows the assistance we stand in need of, and is always ready to bestow it on those who ask it of him.

The natural homage, which such a creature bears to so infinitely wise and good a Being, is a firm reliance on him for the blessings and conveniences of life, and an habitual trust in him for deliverance out of all such dangers and difficulties as may befal us.-Spectator.

Dr. Samuel Johnson, born 1709, died 1784.

The truth is, that knowledge of external nature, and the sciences which that knowledge requires or includes, are not the great nor the frequent business of the human mind. Whether we provide for action or conversation, whether we wish to be useful or pleasing, the first requisite is the religious and moral knowledge of right and wrong; the next is an acquaintance with the history of mankind, and with those examples which may be said to embody truth, and prove by events the reasonableness of opinions. Prudence and Justice are virtues and excellencies of all times, and of all places; we are perpetually moralists, but we are Geometricians only by chance. Our intercourse with intellectual nature is necessary; our speculations upon matter are voluntary, and at leisure. Physiological learning is of such rare emergence, that one may know another half his life, without being able to estimate his skill in hydrostatics or astronomy; but his moral and prudential character immediately appears. Those authors, therefore, are to be read at schools, that supply most axioms of prudence, most principles of moral Truth, and most materials for conversation; and these purposes are best served by Poets, Orators, and Historians.-Life of Milton.

Robert Hall, born 1764, died 1831.

It is an undeniable fact, that no persons have been so popular in India as the men who have exerted themselves with the most steady and persevering zeal in the dissemination of Christian principles; of which we have a striking example in the excellent Schwartz, for many years a missionary on the coasts of Coromandel, who, by his wise and benevolent conduct, rendered, on various occasions, the most essen. tial service to the British interests, and became the object of the enthusiastic attachment of the natives.

But if nothing is to be feared from the dissemination of Christian principles in India, the advantages resulting from it, whether we consult the interest of the natives or our own, are too obvious to require to be enumerated, and too important to be overlooked. With respect to its effects on the natives, will it be contended that a more powerful instrument can be devised for ameliorating and raising their character, than grafting upon it the principles of our holy religion, which, wherever it

prevails, never fails to perfect whatever is good, and to correct whatever is evil, in the human constitution, and to which Europe is chiefly indebted for those enlightened views, and that high sense of probity and honour which distinguish it so advantageously in a comparison with Asiatic nations? The prevalence of Christianity everywhere marks the boundary which separates the civilized from the barbarous and semi-barbarous parts of the world: let but this boundary be extended, and the country included within its limits, may be considered as redeemed from the waste, and prepared to receive the precious seeds of civilization and improvement. Independently of eternal prospects, it may be safely affirmed, that polytheism and idolatry draw after them such a train of absurd and dismal consequences, as to be quite incompatible with the due expansion of the human intellect, and necessarily to prevent the operations of reason from reaching their maturity and perfection.

Wherever Christianity prevails, mankind are uniformly progressive; it communicates that just manner of thinking upon the most important subjects, which, extending its influence thence to every department of speculative and moral truth, inspires a freedom of inquiry, and an elevation of sentiment, which raise the disciples of revelation immeasurably above the level of unassisted nature.-Christianity in India.

Sir Walter Scott, born 1771, died 1832.

I shall never forget the delightful sensation with which I exchanged the dark, smoky, smothering atmosphere of the Highland hut, in which we had passed the night so uncomfortably, for the refreshing fragrance of the morning air, and the glorious beams of the rising sun, which, from a tabernacle of purple and golden clouds, were darted full on such a scene of natural romance and beauty as had never before greeted my eyes. To the left lay the valley, down which the Forth wandered on its easterly course, surrounding the beautiful detached hill, with all its garland of woods. On the right, amid a profusion of thickets, knolls, and crags, lay the bed of a broad mountain lake, lightly curled into tiny waves by the breath of the morning breeze, each glittering in its course under the influence of the sunbeams. High hills, rocks and banks, waving with natural forests of birch and oak, formed the borders of this enchanting sheet of water; and as their leaves rustled to the wind, and twinkled in the sun, gave to the depth of solitude a sort of light and vivacity. Man alone seemed to be placed in a state of inferiority, in a scene where all the ordinary features of nature were raised and exalted.

Robert Southey, born 1774, died 1843.

The tithes of the parish were naturally appropriated to its own church. A certain portion of glebe was added, enough to supply the incumbent with those necessaries of life which were not to be purchased in those times, and could not be conveniently received from his parishioners in kind, but not enough to engage him in the business of agriculture; his pursuits, it was justly deemed, ought to be of a higher nature, and his time more worthily employed for himself and others. Without the allotment of a house and glebe, no church could be legally consecrated. The endowment of a full tenth was liberal, but not too large. The greater part of the country, was then in forest and waste land, and the quantity of produce nowhere more than was consumed in the immediate vicinity; for agriculture was nowhere pursued in the spirit of trade. The parochial priest kept a register of his poor parishioners, which he called over at the church door from time to time, and distributed relief to them according to his means, and their individual necessities. But in that state of society the poor were not numerous, except after some visitation of war, in which the minister suffered with his flock; while village and domestic slavery existed, pauperism, except from the consequences of hostile inroads, must have been almost unknown. The cost of hospitality was far greater than that of relieving the poor. The manse, like the monastery, was placed beside the highway, or on the edge of some wild common for the convenience of the pilgrim and the stranger.-Book of the Church.

PART III. SYNTAX.

SYNTAX treats of the Agreement, Government, and proper Arrangement of words in a sentence.

Syntax, from ouvrağı (sūntaxis), compounded of σvv, with, and raσow, to order. A sentence is a collection of words, so arranged as to form one complete affirmation or proposition.

Sentences are of two kinds, Simple and Compound.

A simple sentence has only one subject and one personal verb; as, "Charles studies his lessons."

Personal verbs are those which have all the persons in each number.

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences, so connected by conjunctions or relatives as to form only one complete sense; as, Industry procures competence, and frugality preserves it."

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So also, "He who preserves me, whose I am, and whom I ought to serve, is eternal," that is, "He is eternal | who preserves me ] whose I am | and whom I ought to serve."

There are several sorts of simple sentences. An explicative or affirmative explains or asserts something; as, "I admire Paley's works." A negative sentence is one in which the adverb not is used; as, "I do not speak." An imperative sentence commands; as, "Hear," "Attend." An interrogative sentence asks a question; as, " Is he teaching?"

A phrase is two or more words put together, so as to express a certain relation between our ideas without affirming any thing; as, "A man of honour."

A phrase merely assumes or takes something for granted, but a sentence or proposition asserts or affirms; thus, were we to say, "A man of honour despises all meanness," the expression would become a sentence, because something would then be affirmed concerning "A man of honour," respecting whom no assertion had been made in the example. A phrase, then, is a connected assemblage of words without a finite verb.

The principal parts of a simple sentence are, the subject or nominative, the attribute or verb, and the object.

The subject is the thing of which something is affirmed or denied, and is always in the nominative case; the attribute is the verb affirming or denying; and the object is the thing affected by such affirmation or denial; as, "Charles studies his lessons." Here, Charles is the subject; studies, the attribute or thing affirmed; and lessons, the object.