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se videntur, Opus ex vetustis et recentioribus omnibus Rabbinis magna Industria ac Fide congestum. He also published three editions of the Hebrew Bible. In the time of Cromwell, he went to England, and obtained for his nation more privileges than they ever before enjoyed there. He died at Amsterdam in 1659. His other works are the Talmud Corrected, with Notes; De Resurrectione Mortuorum; Esperanza de Israel, dedicated to the parliament of England, in 1650, one object of which is to prove that the ten tribes are settled in America; and an Apology for the Jews, in the English language, reprinted in vol. ii of the Phoenix.

MENDELSSOHN, Moses, a celebrated Jewish philosopher, was born Sept. 12, 1729, at Dessau, Germany. His father, Mendel, a school-master, though very poor, gave him a careful education. He himself instructed the boy in Hebrew and the rudiments of Jewish learning; others instructed him in the Talmud. The Old Testament also contributed to the formation of his mind. The poetical books of those ancient records attracted the boy particularly. The famous book of Maimonides, More Nebochim (Guide of the Erring), happening to fall into his hands, excited him first to the inquiry after truth, and to a liberal way of thinking. He studied this work with such ardent zeal, that he was attacked by a nervous fever, which, carelessly treated, entailed upon him for the rest of his life a crooked spine and weak health. His father was unable to support him any longer, and he wandered, in 1742, to Berlin, where he lived several years in great poverty, dependent on the charity of some persons of his own religion. Chance made him acquainted with Israel Moses, a man of philosophical penetration, and a great mathematician, who, persecuted every where on account of his liberal views, lived also in utter poverty, and became a martyr to truth. This man often argued with Mendelssohn on the principles of Maimonides. He also gave him a Hebrew translation of Euclid, and thus awakened in the youth a love for mathematics. A young Jewish physician, named Kisch, encouraged him to study Latin, and gave him some instruction in this language; doctor Gumpery made him acquainted with modern literature. Thus he lived without any certain sup

* It was very customary among the German Jews to add the syllable sohn (son) to the name of the father. A similar usage exists among many Asiatic tribes, and among nations in general in their early stages.

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port, all the time occupied with study, until a silk manufacturer of his tribe, at Berlin, Mr. Bernard, appointed him tutor of his children. At a later period, he took him as a partner in his business. In 1754, he became acquainted with Lessing (q. v.), who had a decided influence upon his mind. Intellectual philosophy became now his chief study. His Letters on Sentiments were the first fruit of his labors in this branch. He became now also acquainted with Nicolai and Abbt (q. v.), and his correspondence with the latter is a fine monument of the friendship and familiarity which existed between these two distinguished men. Mendelssohn contributed to several of the first periodicals, and now and then appeared before the public with philosophical works, which acquired him fame, not only in Germany, but also in foreign countries. He established no new system, but was, nevertheless, one of the most profound and patient thinkers of his age, and the excellence of his character was hanced by his modesty, uprightness, and amiable disposition. His disinterestedness was without limits, and his beneficence ever ready as far as his small means would allow. He knew how to elude with delicacy the zealous efforts of Lavater (q. v.) to convert him to Christianity; yet his grief at seeing himself so unexpectedly assailed, brought on him a severe sickness, which long incapacitated him for scientific pursuits. In his Jerusalem, oder über religiöse Macht und Judenthum, he gave to the world, in 1783, many excellent ideas, which were much misunderstood, partly because they attacked the prejudices of centuries. In some morning lessons he had expounded to his son, and other Jewish youths, the elements of his philosophy, particularly the doctrine of God. He therefore gave the name of Morning Hours (Morgenstunden) to the work containing the results of his investigations, of which his death prevented him from completing more than one volume. F. H. Jacobi having addressed to him a treatise On the Doctrine of Spinoza, he thought himself obliged to defend his deceased friend Lessing against the charge of having been an advocate of Spinoza's doctrines. Without regarding the exhausted state of his health, he hastened to publish his piece entitled Moses Mendelssohn to the Friends of Lessing, and became, in consequence, so much weakened, that a cold was sufficient to put an end to his valuable life, in 1786. The German language is indebted to him, in

part, for its developement. In the philosophical dialogue, he made the first successful attempt among the writers of his country, taking for his models Plato and Xenophon. Besides the works already mentioned, he wrote Philosophische Schriften (Berlin, 1761 and 1771, 2 vols.); his masterpiece, Phædon, or On the Immortality of the Soul, which has gone through several editions since 1767, and has been translated into most modern European languages; and his translation of the five books of Moses, the Psalms, &c.

MENDEZ-PINTO, Ferdinand, a celebrated traveller, was a native of Portugal. In 1537, he embarked in a ship bound for the Indies; but, in the voyage, it was attacked by the Moors, who carried it to Mocha, and sold Ferdinand for a slave. After various adventures, he arrived at Ormus, whence he proceeded to the Indies, and returned to Portugal in 1558. He published a curious account of his travels, which has been translated into French and English. Mendez-Pinto, from his excessive credulity, has been classed with the English sir John Mandeville, and both are now chiefly quoted for their easy belief and extravagant fiction. MENDICANT ORDERS. (See Orders, Religious.)

MENDOZA, don Diego Hurtado de; a Spanish classic, distinguished, likewise, as a politician and a general, in the brilliant age of Charles V. He was descended from an ancient family, which had produced several eminent scholars and statesmen, and was born at Granada, in 1503. As a poet and historian, he contributed to establish the reputation of Castilian literature; but his public life displayed nothing of the finer feelings of the poet, the impartial love of truth of a philosopher, or the clear discernment of the experienced statesman. Stern, severe, arbitrary, haughty, he was a formidable instrument of a despotic court. When don Diego left the university of Salamanca, where his talents, wit and acquirements had rendered him conspicuous, he served in the Spanish army in Italy, and, in 1538, Charles V appointed him ambassador to Venice. In 1542, he was imperial plenipotentiary to the council of Trent, and in 1547, ambas sador to the court of Rome, where he persecuted and oppressed all those Italians who yet manifested any attachment to the freedom of their country. As captain-general and governor of Sienna, he subjected that republic to the dominion of Cosmo I of Medici, under Spanish supremacy, and crushed the Tuscan spirit

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of liberty. Hated by the liberals, held in horror by Paul III, whom he was charged to humble in Rome itself, he ruled only by bloodshed; and, although constantly threatened with the dagger of assassins, not only for his abuses of his power, but also on account of his love intrigues in Rome, he continued to govern until 1554, when he was recalled by Charles V. Amidst the schemes of arbitrary power, Mendoza employed himself in literary labors, and particularly in the collection of Greek and Latin manuscripts. He sent learned men to examine the monastery of Mount Athos, for this purpose, and took advantage of his influence at Soliman's court for the furtherance of the same object. After the abdication of Charles V, he was attached to the court of Philip II. An affair of gallantry involved him in a quarrel with a rival, who turned his dagger upon him. Don Diego threw him from the balcony of the palace into the street, and was, in consequence, thrown into prison, where he spent his time in writing love elegies. He was afterwards banished to Granada, where he observed the progress of the Moorish insurrection in the Alpujarra mountains, and wrote the history of it. This work is considered one of the best historical writings in Spanish literature. He was also engaged till the time of his death (1575) in translating a work of Aristotle, with a commentary. His library he bequeathed to the king, and it now forms one of the ornaments of the Escurial. (For a criticism on his writings, the reader may consult Bouterwek and Sismondi.) His poetical epistles are the first classical models of the kind in the literature of his country. They are mostly imitations of Horace, written in an easy style, and with much vigor, and show the man of the world. Some of them delineate domestic happiness and the tenderer feelings with so much truth that we can with difficulty recognise the tyrant of Sienna. His sonnets are deficient in elevation, grace and harmony. His canzoni are often obscure and forced. In the Spanish forms of poetry, redondillas, quintillas and villancicos, he surpassed his predecessors in elegance of diction. His satires, or burlescas, were prohibited by the inquisition. As a prose writer, he forms an epoch; he has been called the father of Spanish prose. His comic romance, written while he was yet a student,-Vida de Lazarillo de Tormes (Tarragona, 1536, continued by Luna, Saragossa, 1652),-has been translated into foreign languages. The hero is a cunning beggar, and the life

of the various classes of the people is described in it with great spirit and truth. The numerous imitations of Lazarillo de Tormes produced a peculiar class of writings in Spanish literature-gusto picarres co, so called. (See Spanish Literature.) His second great work, the History of the War of Granada, may be compared with the works of Livy and Tacitus. Though Mendoza does not pronounce judgment, yet it is easy to see, from his relation, that the severity and tyranny of Philip had driven the Moors to despair. The Spanish government would not, therefore, permit the printing of it till 1610, and then only with great omissions. The first complete edition was published in 1776. His complete works also appeared at Valencia, in 1776.

MENEDEMUS OF Eretria, in Euboea; founder of the Eretrian school of philosophy, which formed a branch of the Socratic. He was a pupil of Plato and Stilpo, and ascribed truth only to identical propositions. Diogenes Laertius wrote his life. He is said to have starved himself to death because he could not engage Antigonus to restore freedom to his country.

MENELAUS; son or grandson of Atreus, and brother of Agamemnon. From his father-in-law,Tyndareus, whose daughter Helen he married, he received the kingdom of Sparta. He was at Crete, for the purpose of dividing the inheritance left by his paternal grandfather, Cretus, when Paris carried off his wife Helen, with a part of his treasures and some female slaves, and conveyed them to Troy. On learning this, Menelaus, with Palamedes, went to Troy, to demand satisfaction; and this being refused, he summoned the Greek princes to revenge the affront, according to their promise. He himself led 60 ships to Troy, and showed himself a brave warrior. Homer gives him the title of ßonv ¿yabos, on account of the loudness of his cry in battle, and describes him as mild, brave and wise. After the conquest of Troy, Menalaus took Helen, to return with her to his native land. Eight years he wandered before he reached home. He first went to Tenedos, then to Lesbos and Eubœa, but, being tossed about by storms and tempests, he had to land in Cypria, Phoenicia, Egypt and Libya, and was, in several instances, detained for a long time. On the island of Pharus, on the Egyptian coast, he surprised Proteus asleep, by the aid of Eidothea, his daughter, and compelled him to disclose the means which he must take to reach home. Proteus likewise informed him that he

should not die, but would be translated alive into Elysium, as a demigod and the husband of Helen.

MENES. (See Hieroglyphics, division Chronological Periods of Egyptian History.)

MENGS, Anthony Raphael, one of the most distinguished artists of the 18th century, born at Aussig in Bohemia, 1728, was the son of an indifferent Danish artist, who had settled in Dresden. From the sixth year of his age, the young Raphael was compelled to exercise himself in drawing, daily and hourly, and, a few years later, was instructed by his father in oil, miniature and enamel painting. The father hardly allowed him a moment for play, set him tasks, which he was required to accomplish within a given time, and severely punished him if he failed. In 1741, the young artist accompanied his father to Rome, and studied the remains of ancient statuary, the works of Michael Angelo in the Sistine chapel, and finally, the inimitable productions of the divine Raphael in the Vatican. He was left to pass the day there with bread and water, and in the evening his studies were examined with the greatest severity. In 1744, his father returned with him to Dresden, and Augustus soon after appointed him court-painter. A second visit to Rome was occupied in renewing his former studies, studying anatomy, &c. His first great compositions appeared in 1748, and met with universal admiration. A holy family was particularly admired; and the young peasant girl who served him as a model became his wife. On his return to Dresden, the king appointed him principal court-painter. In 1751, he was engaged to paint the altar-piece for the Catholic chapel, with leave to execute it in Rome. At this time, he made a copy of Raphael's School of Athens for the duke of Northumberland. The seven years' war deprived him of his pension, and, in 1754, he received the direction of the new academy of painting in the Capitol. In 1757, the Celestines employed him to paint the ceiling of the church of St. Ensebius, his first fresco. He soon after painted, for cardinal Albani, the Parnassus in his villa, and executed various oil paintings. In 1761, Charles III invited Mengs to Spain, where his principal works at this time were an assembly of the gods and a descent from the cross. Returning to Rome, he executed a great allegorical fresco painting for the pope, in the camera de' papiri, and, after three years, returned to Madrid. At this time,

he executed the apotheosis of Trajan, in fresco, his finest work. He died in Rome, in 1779, leaving seven children, thirteen having died previously. His expensive manner of living, and his collections of drawings of masters, vases, engravings, &c., had absorbed all his gains, although during the last 18 years he had received 180,000 scudi. A splendid monument was erected to his memory by his friend the cavalier d'Azara, at the side of Raphael, and another by the empress of Russia, in St. Peter's. Mengs's composition and grouping is simple, noble and studied; his drawing correct and ideal; his expression, in which Raphael was his model, and his coloring, in every respect, are excellent. His works are finished with the greatest care. His writings, in different languages (published, in Italian, by Azara, 1783), particularly his Remarks on Correggio, Raphael and Titian, are highly instructive. His friend, the celebrated Winckelmann (q. v.), rendered him valuable assistance in the preparation of them. (See Göthe's Winckelmann und sein Jahrhundert.)

MENILITE. (See Opal.)

MENINSKI, OF MENIN, Francis (Francis a Mesgnien), a celebrated Orientalist, was born in Lorraine, in 1623, and studied at Rome, under the learned Jesuit Grattini. At the age of 30, he accompanied the Polish ambassador to Constantinople, and, applying himself to the study of the Turkish language, became first interpreter to the Polish embassy at the Porte, and, soon after, was appointed ambassador plenipotentiary to that court. He was naturalized in Poland, and added the termination ski to his family name of Menin. In 1661, he became interpreter of the Oriental languages at Vienna, and was in trusted with several important commissions. In 1669, going to visit the holy sepulchre of Jerusalem, he was created a knight of that order, and, on his return to Vienna, was created one of the emperor's Council of war. His principal work was his Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalium, published at Vienna in 1680. A new edition of this valuable work was begun in 1780, but remains still unfinished. Meninski died at Vienna in 1698.

MENIPPUS, a cynic, and disciple of the second Menedemus, was a native of Gadara, in Palestine. His writings were chiefly of a satirical kind, insomuch that Lucian styles him "the most snarling of cynics," and, in two or three of his dialogues, introduces him as the vehicle of his own sarcasms. It appears that his

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satires were composed in prose; on which account those of Varro were denominated Menippean; and, for the same reason, that of satire Menippée was given, in France, to the celebrated piece written against the league.* Menippus is said to have hanged himself, in consequence of being robbed of a large sum of money. He had been originally a slave, but purchased his freedom, and was made a citizen of Thebes. None of his works is now extant.

MENNO, Simonis (i. e. the son of Simon), born in Friesland, in 1505, joined the Anabaptists in 1537, having been previously a Roman Catholic priest. After the suppression of the disturbances at Münster, Menno collected the scattered remnants of the sect, and organized societies, for which he secured the toleration of the government. His peregrinations for many years, in Holland and the north of Germany, as far as Livonia, contributed to increase the number of his followers, and to disseminate his doctrines among those who were not satisfied with the progress of the Protestant churches in reform. Except in some opinions concerning the incarnation of Christ, to which he was probably led by the controversy concerning the bodily presence of Christ in the eucharist, and in the administration of baptism to adults only, his tenets agreed, in general, with those of the Calvinists. Menno died at Oldeslohe, in Holstein, 1561. His followers are called Mennonites, an account of whom has been given in the article Anabaptists.

MENOLOGIUM (from pm, the moon, and Xoyos, discourse, report, &c.), in the Greek church, has about the same signification as martyrologium (q. v.) in the Roman church. The Menologium is a book in which the festivals of every month are recorded, with the names and biographies of the saints and martyrs, in the order in which they are read in the masses, the ceremonies of the day, &c.

MENOMONIES, MENOMENIES; a tribe of Indians, residing in the North-West Territory, to the south of lake Superior and west of Green bay, called by the French Mangeurs de Folle-Avoine (or Eaters of

*The title of this ingenious and amusing satire d'Espagne, ou de la Tenue des Etats à Paris en is Satyre Menippée de la Vertu du Catholicon 1593, par MM. de la Ste. Union (Paris, 1594). The title is a satire on Philip II, king of Spain, head of the league, who masked his projects under pretexts of zeal for the Catholic religion. It is the work of several hands, and was, according

to Voltaire, of not less advantage to Henry IV than the battle of Ivry.

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Wild Oats). They belong to the great Chippeway family. (See Indians, American.) MENOU, Jacques François, baron de, born in Touraine in 1750, entered the military service at an early age, and rose rapidly to a high rank. In 1789, the noblesse of Touraine chose him their deputy to the states-general, where he was one of the earliest to unite with the third estate. Menou turned his attention particularly to the new organization of the army, and proposed to substitute a general conscription of the young men, in the room of the old manner of recruiting. His subsequent votes and propositions, in favor of vesting the declaration of war in the nation, of arming the national guard (1791), &c., were generally on the revolutionary side; but when the more violent opinions began to prevail, he joined those who endeavored to moderate the excitement. In 1792, he resumed his military duties, and was second in command of the troops of the line, stationed near Paris. In this capacity, he accompanied the king to the assembly, and was afterwards repeatedly denounced to the convention as an enemy to the revolution. He, however, escaped condemnation, and, in May (2 prairial), 1795, commanded the troops who defended the convention against the insurgents of the faubourg St. Antoine. On the 13th Vendémiaire, he was likewise in command, but would not allow his troops to attack the section opposed to the convention, and Bonaparte first gained celebrity by undertaking that attack. Menou afterwards accompanied general Bonaparte to Egypt, and distinguished himself by his courage on several occasions. After the return of Bonaparte, he married the daughter of a rich bath-keeper of Rosetta, submitting to all the ceremonies of the laws of Mahomet, and adopting the name of Abdallah. On the death of Kléber (q. v.), he took the chief command, and, after a gallant defence in Alexandria, was obliged to capitulate to the English. Bonaparte received him favorably, on his arrival in France, and appointed him governor of Piedmont. Menou was afterwards sent to Venice, in the same capacity, and died there in 1810.

MENSCHIKOFF, Alexander, the son of a peasant, born near Moscow, in 1674, was employed by a pastry-cook to sell pastry in the streets of Moscow. Different accounts are given of the first cause of his rise. According to some statements, he overheard the project of a conspiracy by the Strelitz, and communicated it to the czar; other accounts represent him as

having attracted the notice of Lefort (q. v.), who took him into his service, and, discerning his great powers, determined to educate him for public affairs. Lefort took the young Menschikoff with him on the great embassy in 1697, pointed out to him whatever was worthy of his attention, and instructed him in military affairs, and in the maxims of politics and government. On the death of Lefort, Menschikoff succeeded him in the favor of the czar, who placed such entire confidence in him, that he undertook nothing without his advice; yet his passion for money was the cause of many abuses, and he was three times subjected to a severe examination, and was once also condemned to a fine. The emperor punished him for smaller offences on the spot ; but much of his selfishness and faithlessness was unknown to his sovereign. He was much indebted, for support, to the empress Catharine. He became first minister and general fieldmarshal, baron and prince of the German empire, and received orders from the courts of Copenhagen, Dresden and Berlin. Peter also conferred on him the title of duke of Ingria. On the death of Peter, it was chiefly through the influence of Menschikoff that Catharine was raised to the throne, and that affairs were conducted during her reign. (See Catharine I.) When Peter II succeeded her on the throne, Menschikoff grasped, with a bold and sure hand, the reins of government. In 1727, when his power was raised to the highest pitch, he was suddenly hurled from his elevation. Having embezzled a sum of money which the emperor had intended for his sister, he was condemned to perpetual exile in Siberia, and his immense estate was confiscated. He passed the rest of his life at Berezov, where he lived in such a frugal way, that, out of a daily allowance of ten roubles, he saved enough to erect a small wooden church, on which he himself worked as a carpenter.

He sunk into a deep melancholy, said nothing to any one, and died in 1729. Menschikoff, was selfish, avaricious, and ambitious, implacable and cruel, but gracious, courageous, well informed, capable of large views and plans, and persevering in the execution of them. His services in the promotion of civilization, commerce, the arts and sciences, and in the establishment of Russian respectability abroad, have been productive of permanent effects.

MENSES. (See Catamenia.)

MENSURATION is the art of ascertaining the contents of superficial areas, or planes;