(2) adv. Haeres. Lib. IV. c. 17, 18. Reference. Essay of a History of the doctrine of a sacrifice in the Lord's supper; (German,) in the Göttingenchen Bibliothek der neuesten theol. Literatur, vol. II. p. 159, and 317. SEC. 104. Presence of Christ in the Eucharist. As all christians considered the Lord's supper, to be a means of communion with Christ, two modes of explaining this communion early appeared. Some, as Tertullian(1) Origen(2) and Cyprian(3), regarded the bread and wine, as mere symbols of the body and blood of Jesus. Others, as Justin (4) and Irenaeus(5) (though with very indistinct conceptions,) supposed that, the Logos, united himself with the bread and wine, and thus transformed them into his body and blood, and into food, that imparted immortality to the body of the partaker of it. Although this diversity of sentiment, did not afterwards disappear, yet subsequent to the fourth century, the latter hypothesis acquired an ascendency, more and more manifest; and it became common, to speak of the transformation of the elements, although the church had not yet an established belief on the subject. Tertullian, contra Marcion, Lib. IV. c. 40. (2) Comment. in Matth. Opp. T. III. p. 498–500 (3) Ep. LXIII. p. 148 &c. 153 &c. (4) Apolog, maj. p. 82, 83, (5) adv. Haer. V. c. 2. Reference. Phil. Marheineke, Sanc. Patrum de praesentia Christi in coena Domini sententia triplex; s. sacrae Eucharistiae historia tripartita; Heidelb. 1811. 4to. SEC. 105. Of the sacraments in general. The word sacrament (sacramentum, in Gr. μsnpov) was sometimes used for religious doctrines, that transcend the comprehension of men, and sometimes for religious rites. Among these rites, baptism and the Lord's sup per held the first rank; and they were described as means, by which God imparts his grace to men. Unction, however, was distinguished from baptism; and Augustine(1) added the two institutions of ordination and marriage. The pseudo-Dionosius Areopagita(2) enumerates six sacraments; namely baptism, the Lord's supper, unction, ordination, monastic vows, and religious rites on the dead. (1) contra Ep. Parmeniani Lib. II. c. 12. Sec. 28. de Bono conjugali, c. 7. et 15. (2) Dionys. Areop. de Ecclesiastica Hierarchia, Opp. T. I. p. 229. SECOND PERIOD. THE MIDDLE AGES, A. D. 600-1517. PART I. GENERAL VIEW OF THE STATE OF THEOLOGY. SEC. 106. State of theology among the Greeks, at the beginning of the period. The state of the Greek empire, which, in consequence of enemies without and bad management within, was threatened with dissolution, raised obstructions to the progress of theology. But still greater obstacles lay in the theological disposition of the age; which was governed by authority, looked at the bible through the glass of the earlier expositors, compiled systems of faith from the works of preceding times, and was violently passionate against heretics. The contests concerning the wills of Christ, and concerning pictures in churches, called forth indeed the activity of theologians, but gave, no favorable direction to their minds. SEC. 107. John Damascenus. From the materials, which the various controversies of the preceding ages and the industry of the fathers had accumulated, John of Damascus formed an orthodox system of divinity (έκθεσις ἀκριβης της ορθοδοξου πίςεως); which was received with great applause, on account of the uncommon learning of the author, and his reputation earned in the field of orthodox warfare. Although we are not to look there, for natural interpretations of scripture, and candid investigations of subjects; yet the work commends itself, by a happy selection of thoughts MUENSCHER'S ELEMENTS, ETC. 89 from approved writers, by clearness of expression, and by the attempt to give, with the aid of the Aristotelian philosophy, new confirmations and greater unity to the received theology. References. Io. Damasceni Opp. cura Mich. Le Quien. Paris, 1712. II. vol. Fol. Epitome universae theologiae; s. Explicatio IV. libror. Damasceni Chrysorrhoae, de orthodoxa fide; auctore Christoph Pelargo; Francf. 1605. 4to. Rösler's Bibliothek der Kirchenväter, vol. VIII. p. 248-532. SEC. 108. Greek theology subsequently. After John Damascen, the cultivation of theology, among the Greeks, still declined: and, was directed solely, to the prosecution of the contest respecting imageworship; to the attacking of manichaeism, as revived by the Paulicians; and to the points of doctrine, contested between the Greeks and the Latins. Those inclined to attempt something more, as Euthymius Zigabenus (d. circ. A. D. 1116) and Nicetas Choniates, compiled collections of sentences from the fathers, against the heretics. The detached parties, the Nestorians (Chaldaic christians,) and the Monophysites, (Jacobites,) had for dogmatic writers-the former, Ebed Jesu (d. 1318) and the latter, Jacobus of Tagrit (d. 1231) and Abulfaradsch (d. 1286.) Notices. Euthymii Zigabeni, πανοπλια δογματική της όρθοSogou TISTEWS published, Lat. in the Biblioth. maxima Patrum, T. XIX. and Gr. Targov. 1710. Fol. Nicetae Choniatis Θησαυρος ὀρθοδοξίας. See Bandini Eccles. Graecae Monum. T. II. p.1 & c. Ebed Jesu Margarita ; s. de vera Fide. See Assemanni Biblioth. Orient. Tom. III. P. I. Jacobus Tagrit. Liber Thesaurorum. See Asseman . c. T. II. p. 237. Abulfaragii candelabrum sanctorum de fundamentis ecclesiae. Ibid. p. 284. SEC. 109. State of theology among the Latins. In the newly erected western kingdoms, learning sunk faster and deeper, than it did in the East; yet here also, the like firm adherence to the earlier systems of belief, prevailed. The Romish Bishops distinguished themselves, by their zeal against the Monothelites, and the opposers of image worship. Isidore of Seville, is little more than an undiscriminating compiler of sentences from the works of Augustine and Gregory. Tajo of Saragossa, and Ildefonsus of Toledo, made similar compilations. Notices. Isidori Hispalensis Opp. Madrid, 1776. II. vol. Fol. and by F. Arevalo, Romae, 1797-1803. VII. vol. 4to. In which are, Sententiarum Libri III. Also his Etymologies. Lib. VII. and VIII. contain explanations of many points in theology. Tajonis Caesaraugustani Sententiarum Lib. V. Ildefonsi Toletani Annotatt. de cognitione baptismi, Liber; in Steph. Baluzii Miscellanea, T. VI. p. 1. Paris, 1713. SEC. 110. Age of Charlemagne. In the empire of the Franks, Charlemagne awakened the slumbering love of science. He and his assistantsamong whom Alcuin was prominent-exercised their ingenuity, in applying the theology of the fathers to the controversies respecting image worship, and with the Adoptionists. In the schools established by Charlemagne, various learned men were trained, who became conspicuous, by their investigations concerning the Lord's Supper, and the doctrine of election. Yet one individual, John Scotus, distinguished himself among his contemporaries, by his uncommon boldness of thought. He also transplanted the writings of the supposed Dionysius Areopagita, into the soil of the Latin churches. Notices. Flaccus Alcuinus, Opp.—cura J. Frobenii; Ratisbon. 1777. II. Tom. IV. vol. Fol. Jo Scotus, de Divisione naturae, Lib. V. Oxon. 1609. Hincmarus Rhemensis, Opp.—cura Ja. Sirmondi; Paris 1645. II. Vol. Fol. SEC. 111. Preparatory steps to Scholastic theology. Historians. Important materials, for a history of scholastic |