every lubricant obtainable, and even had piped running water to each of the journals, and yet the best they could get was about twenty minutes running, when the journals would become heated to the melting-point. They removed the babbit, and re-poured the bearings with new metal, and still it ran hot. In watching these men endeavouring to make this machine run it seemed that its speed was excessive. By means of an indicator it was quickly determined that the speed was 218 rev. per min. above the running time recommended by the manufacturer. In this case a heavy roughly constructed machine was being run at a higher speed than its journals could stand. Upon changing the driver this hog ran very well, and no more heated journals were had. Nevertheless, the company had lost several hundred dollars in experimentation.

Aside from selecting an oil, it is necessary to have the working conditions as nearly correct as possible. Neither oils, nor greases, nor colloidal graphite, nor anything else in the way of lubricants will correct a mechanical difficulty. | But, when your working conditions are as they should be, then the addition af colloidal graphite to the ordinary lubricants will reduce friction by more than 20 per cent. Colloidal graphite was invented by Dr. E. G. Acheson, who in 1897 first produced artificial graphite on a commercial scale. While carrying on experiments with carborundum in an electric furnace, he noticed that when the substance was brought to a temperature far beyond that of its production, decomposition occurred, and the silicon portion of the carborundum dissipated as volatile matter, while the carbon proportion remained as pure graphite. It now requires two plants which have a total equipment of about 9000 hp. to supply the demand for graphite. This is being shipped to all parts of the world, the consumption in 1913 being 16,000,000 lbs.

Graphite is manufactured in electric furnaces which are under perfect control and which reach a temperature of 7500° F., so that all substances except carbon are volatilised. The remaining carbon is thus extremely pure, and is entirely converted into graphite. In fact, entire furnace loads have proven to contain more than 99.90 per cent pure graphite carbon. The small amount of nongraphitic material consists of condensed mineral gases collected during the cooling of the furnace. Since the power is at all times under absolute control the entire process is flexible, so that any quality of graphite desired can be produced by varying the raw material used, the method of running the furnace, and the amount of power expended.

After this chemically pure graphite is produced in the electric furnace it is then reduced by a process of disintegration, and passed through a sieve having 40,000 meshes to the square inch. The resulting powder is much finer thaa the finest flour, but not redueed to a condition where it can be employed in connection with oils as a lubricant. In order to secure a still finer subdivision this disintegrated graphite is subjected to a treatment called "deflocculation." This consists in a mastication of the disintegrated graphite with a water solution of tannin, the amount of tannin being 6 per cent by weight of the amount of graphite being treated. The tannin enters into and explodes the individual particles of the disintegrated graphite to a condition approximately 1000 times finer than their original state. To give a clearer idea we will say that disintegrated graphite is of such fineness that it takes 338 particles to cover the distance of 1 inch, when these particles are placed side by side; after the tannin treatment the resulting deflocculated graphite is of such fineness that it requires 338,704 particles to cover the distance of 1 inch. This reduction in lineal dimensions means a reduction of cubical volume corresponding to the cube of 1000, or the ratio of the size of the individual particles is as one drop of water is to 264 barrels of water.

Graphite in this condition of fineness is on the market under the trade name of "Oildag"; O-I-L plus defloc culated Acheson graphite, and is being used in every class of lubrication.

Oil containing colloidal graphite (deflocculated graphite is now bing aptly termed colloidal and liquid graphite) constitutes a most dependable form of lubricant. When introduced into a bearing the graphite particles, being infinitesimal, penetrate the pores of the metal. These particles accumulate until the surfaces in contact are completely amalgamated with a thin veneer which has been termed a graphoid surface. This film. unlike that of oil, is free from intrinsic friction and exceedingly stable in its construction, being capable of withstanding far greater pressure than any form of hydrocarbon regardless of its viscosity.

The graphoid surface not only greatly reduces friction but practically eliminates wear. So lubric is the nature of this graphite film that upon its establishment oil consumption may be considerably reduced. It has been recorded that one-sixteenth less oil is necessary when colloidal graphite has been used. If the oil supply of a bearing is either accidentally discontinued or completely consumed, the original graphoid surface alone will hold up as a lubricant for a long time, preventing a hot bearing.

It has been found, after many exhaustive tests, that 0.35 per cent of colloidal graphite properly diffused in oil is sufficient.

Colloidal graphite in gas-engine lubrication possesses many advantages over plain oil. The formation of carbon deposits in cylinders results from the inability of the piston rings to effect a thorough wiping back of the lubricating oil, so that a portion remains in the cylinder and is decomposed. This source of trouble usually ceases with the use of colloidal graphite. The minute particles of the graphite enter the interstices of the metal, and form a soft unctuous film that is not attainable by any mechanical operation.

With the establishment of this film or amalgamation of graphite upon the cylinders, and upon the face and sides of the rings, there is effected a perfect fit between the walls of the cylinders and the rings, due largely to the freer action of the rings in their grooves. This fit produces or causes a clean wiping back of the excess oil after each splash, so there remains no oil to decompose and produce carbon. What carbon deposits there may be formed will be found to be of a nature similar to damp lamp-black, and may be wiped off clean. There will be an entire absence of the hard burned carbon that causes cylinder troubles.

Dr. C. H. Benjamin, now dean of Purdue University, while he was with the Case School of Applied Science of Cleveland, Ohio, made a number of tests with colloidal graphite. One of his trials was made on a journal having a pressure 125 lbs. per square inch, and running 445 rev. per min. This test was made using the same oil and same rate of feed for two runs, all conditions identical, excepting that colloidal graphite was added to the oil in one run. A lower coefficient of friction was very noticeable with the addition of the graphite. After two hours' lubrication with the oil, the feed was shut off while the bearing was permitted to run, and within ten minutes the lubrication from the oil failed, producing an abrupt rise in friction, which necessitated stopping the run. By the addition of colloidal graphite to the same oil for a period of two hours before shutting off the feed, there resulted an almost perfect lubrication over the time of one hour and twenty minutes, thus showing that the graphite is dependable as a lubricant when the oil feed is cut off.

Another interesting experiment was conducted by Dr. Chas. F. Mabery of the Case School of Applied Science. He also shut off the oil feed after two hours, and let the journal run. In just nineteen minutes the plain oil lubrication failed absolutely, while the same oil carrying colloidal graphite gave a perfect lubrication for four hours after the feed had been cut off. In this test Dr. Mabery used a pressure of 200 lbs. per square inch and 450 rev. per min.

There remains one more point worthy of mention.

Colloidal graphite, being molecular, refuses to associate with an acid or alkaline oil Some of the oil refineries use the acid process to precipitate the colouring matter or heavy carbons that are present in oils, and then tail to remove all this acid. Every oil to be a good lubricant should be neutral. The presence of acids, in any appreciable quantities in oil, detracts from their lubricating value. A very simple and very positive test for the presence of acid in oil is to take a 2-oz. bottle of the oil, and thoroughly mix, say, 30 drops of "Oildag" with this amount, and allow the mixture to stand undisturbed for two to five days. If the oil is neutral there will be no sign of precipitating of the colloidal graphite. Should there be a decided precipitation then the oil is acid, and therefore is not the best to be desired for lubrication. If graphite is not carried in diffusion, but caused to settle out of the oil, then it ceases to be colloidal graphite. A colloid, being a solid in suspension but not in solution, cannot be precipitated. Chemical Engineer, xxi., No. 3.

EDUCATION FOR RESEARCH.*

By W. H WALKER.

THE general disturbance in the chemical and pharmaceutical market occasioned by the present European war has sharply emphasised the dependence of many American industries upon the supply of both raw and finished material obtained from abroad. The public is asking the pertinent questions, Why must we import so large a pro portion of our coal-tar dyestuffs when we have so much highly coloured coal-tar at home? Why do we depend upon Germany for lithia salts when all the lithium-bearing minerals come from America? Why has a European war increased the price of articles not in any way connected

with the war?

It is a principle of pedagogy that to insure the best results when giving instruction it is necessary to create a receptive attitude on the part of the student-to encourage an inquiring frame of mind. To-day there is a keener and broader interest among manufacturers than ever before in determining those factors which have been controlling in giving European nations an advantage in many lines of industry which it would seem the United States is in every way equally fitted to enjoy. The public now possesses that desirable receptive attitude and inquiring frame of mind. It would seem, therefore, that the present is a psychological moment for a campaign of education which would benefit the chemical profession directly and the

entire community indirectly.

A number of very important factors in successful chemical industry have already been considered by this audience, and your able Committee has reported its findings and recommendations regarding a so-called antidumping clause, an adequate protective tariff, and the United States patent law. There are, however, some very general matters bearing upon the subject that may be profitably considered. First, there is the necessity for further education of the public. Notwithstanding all that has thus far been done the public is as a whole ignorant of what a chemist professionally is and the place he occupies in the community. A great many people do not yet distinguish between a chemist and an apothecary, or between the latter and a dispenser of soda water. A chemical engineer is frequently visualised as a man who runs a so-called chemical fire-engine. And yet this same public will talk volubly about the position occupied by Germany in the industrial chemical world, and ascribe untold advantages to systems of education and industry which it does not understand. The magnificence of German chemical

Address at the Joint Meeting of the New York Sections of the American Chemical Society, the Society of Chemical Industry, and the American Electrochemical Society, Chemists' Club, December 11, 1914. From the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry,

1915, vii., No. 1.

33

industry has been compared to the chemical industry of America almost ad nauseam. Generally the inequalities are greatly exaggerated, and many may be explained without any discredit to the American profession. We are wont to instance the telegraph, the sewing-machine, the electric light, and such developments when desiring to find compensating achievements to offset the contributions of Germany to chemical science, but we forget that the sulphite process for obtaining cellulose from wood, the chromium process for leather, calcium carbide, carborundum, and many other chemical industries owe their origin and development to American chemical genius. Nothing succeeds like success, and while we should continue to learn from Germany the many things which she is in a position to teach us, we must cease making unfair comparisons and root for the home team.

The increasing appreciation with which the chemically trained man is held by the American manufacturer argues well for the future. Not many years ago if a chemist was employed at all it was simply and only for so-called control work. The manufacturer was satisfied if he maintained his standard and turned out a uniform product. There was little inclination to risk money by placing on the market a new product. There has been an encouraging change within the last ten years, and the manufacturing the quality of his product and the methods of his plant, public is awakening to the desirability of progress in both and he is beginning to realise that a man trained in experimental science is a necessary addition to his organisation. But the average manufacturer of America still expects bricks without straw. To cite an example of what I mean. A large shoe machinery company known to us thinks nothing of allowing a skilled mechanic two or three tion of parts of a machine, yet this same company was years in which to perfect a desired movement or correlakeenly disappointed, even disgusted, because a skilled chemist did not produce in six weeks a special alloy with sharply defined properties. In one case the solution depended upon mechanics which the superintendent underwhich he did not understand and the action of which he stood and could see, while in the other it was chemistry could not follow.

The manufacturer of to-day is beginning to be strongly attracted by the terms "research" and "research department." He has a sort of conviction that by adding such an appendage to his organisation he will be insured of progress and will protect himself from difficulties, much in the same way that a good vaccination mark insures against smallpox.

generosity on the part of the employer in matters of My plea at this time is not so much for greater laboratory facilities, special equipment, or a good library, however important these are, but rather for a larger appreciation of the conditions which make for ultimate success in research work. Among these conditions may be mentioned, first, the choice of the research worker. I trial research by the employment of immature, untrained am satisfied that no little harm is done the cause of indusmen, who pass as men skilled in science, but who either know no science or who have had no experience in that very difficult art of applying science to industry. The tion fails, but rather because the management believes it harm comes not so much because the particular investigahas shown that its problems are not susceptible to solution by scientific research or amenable to the aid which applied

science can render. This unfortunate condition is

frequently brought about by false economy on the part of the management.

A research chemist should in its

opinion be obtained with the ease and salary of an apothecary's clerk. A horse suitable for drawing an ice cart is bought and expected to win a Derby.

Another mistake frequently made is in the organi sation of the research staff, or, if done on a less pretentious scale, the research work. Investigation work should never be allowed to interfere with factory production. The average mill superintendent quickly

CHEMICAL NEWS, July 16, 1915

PHYSICAL SOCIETY.

Ordinary Meeting, June 25, 1915.

Dr. A. RUSSELL, M.A., Vice-President, in the Chair.

A PAPER, entitled "Conduction of Electricity Through Metals," was read by the President, Sir J. J. THOMSON, O.M., F.R.S.

The discovery by Kamerlingh Onnes, that at the temperature of liquid helium some metals can exist in a state in which their specific resistance is less than one hundred thousand millionth part of that at o° C., appears to necessitate the abandonment of the ordinary theory of metallic conduction, as the experimental conditions prohibit the explanation of the phenomenon by an abnormal increase, either in the number or mean free path of the free electrons. The effects observed by Kamerlingh Onnes may, however, be accounted for by a theory of metallic conduction previously given by the author in "The Corpuscular Theory of Matter." On this theory the atoms of some substances contain electrical doublets-i.e., pairs of equal and opposite electrical charges at a small distance apart. The effect of an applied E.M.F. is to alter the heterogeneous distribution of the axes of these doublets by bringing them into partial alignment with the field. The influences preventing complete alignment are considered, and it is shown that if M is the moment of a doublet, N the number per unit volume, w the average kinetic energy of the molecules (Re, except at very low temperatures), and I is the resultant of the molecular moments in the direction of X the electric force on the doublets, then

I-NM/(XM/w) = NMf(x), . in which f(x)=0 when x=0, and f(x) = ∞

infinite.

I

when x is

For any value of Xo the value of I can be found from the intercept of the straight line (2) with the curve (1); The effects due to any value of I will be the same as if I doublets per unit volume pointed in the direction of the field, the axes of the rest being uniformly distributed in all directions, and the substance may be pictured as containing a number of chains of polarised atoms whose doublets all point in the direction of the field. The electrons in the atoms will be acted on by forces due to the neighbouring polarised atoms, and the theory supposes that in conductors the electrons are easily abstracted by these forces from the atoms to which they are attached, and pass, under their influence, from atom to atom round the polarised chain. If p electrons pass along each chain per second, and if there are n chains per square centimetre perpendicular to the field, the current density =epn, where e is the electronic charge. It is shown that p is independent of Xo, and so the ratio of i to Xo will follow the same laws as that of I to Xo.

When w/Mk is large, as at ordinary temperatures, the slope of (2) will be steep and will intersect (1) near the origin where it approximates to a straight line. In these circumstances it is shown that Ohm's law holds. As the temperature falls the slope of (2) also decreases, and may ultimately become less than that of the tangent at the origin of (1). In this case, if we start with an external field producing a polarisation, I, and gradually reduce the field to zero, the point of intersection of (1) and (2) moves along the former, but still gives a finite value of I, when (1) passes through the origin-i.e., when Xo-o-and a current continues to flow in the absence of an applied E.M.F. as observed in one of Kamerlingh Onnes' experi

ments.

35

On this view, therefore, the function of the applied field is to produce the alignment of the doublets; the actual transference of electricity is effected by the large interatomic forces brought into being by the polarisation of the doublets. Thus, if the polarisation remains on withdrawing the applied E.M.F. the current will also remain.

In addition to the disturbing effects on the chains due to thermal energy, there may be mutually directive action between different atoms such as gives rise to crystallisation. The effect of this is considered, and it is shown that if this factor is large the metal cannot become superconducting.

Prof. S. P. THOMPSON, in proposing a vote of thanks to the President for his paper, said there were one or two points which he had not quite grasped in the course of the lecture, and which he would like to have cleared up. We were asked to assume a ring of polarised atoms with positive and negative sides producing an electric force which caused the transference of electrons from one atom to the next and so on round the circuit, this transference constituting the electric current. Although the responsible factor in the transference of the electrons was the internal force, an external force was necessary to produce this, and he did not see why, on withdrawing the applied field the process should go on instead of stopping after one, or, at most a few, transfers had taken place. Were there any physical grounds for supposing that the forces of restitution were greater in the case of mixed crystals than in homogeneous ones? Lastly, he did not see the physical necessity of introducing the quantity d. Could the total force of restitution from all causes not have been included in a single symbol?

The PRESIDENT, replying to the points raised by Prof. Thompson, said that the energy was not spent in the movements of the electrons, but in creating the initial polarisation, and if, in any circumstances, this could be maintained, the current would go on without any loss of energy, except a little by radiation. The formation of mixed crystals of A and B was due to the force between a molecule of A and one of B being greater than that between two of A or two of B. Hence, the force of restitution called into play on displacing a molecule will be greater in the case of the mixture than in that of the pure metals. He had thought it better to denote the force of restitution due to the directive action of neighbouring molecules, which did not depend much on temperature, by a separate symbol d, and keep it clear from the restoring couple due to the gyrostatic action which did depend on the thermal conditions.

A paper "On an Unbroken Alternating Current for Cable Telegraphy," was read by Lieut.-Colonel G. O. SQUIER, Ph.D.

1. The paper proposes a new angle of view in the method of transmission of signals in the submarine telegraph cable, and describes some apparatus for operating on the general principles involved.

2. An ocean cable is considered as a power line, and starting with the standard form of circuit which would be used in case it were required to operate an electric motor through an ocean cable, experiments are described to determine the minimum possible variations required in such a circuit to permit the alternating current received to be interpreted in dots, dashes, and spaces of the present alphabet. The uninterrupted alternating current used in transmission is operated on synchronously by the ordinary transmitting tape, so as to alter the impedance of the transmitting circuit at the instants when the current is naturally zero. Dots, dashes, and spaces are each sent by semi-waves of either sign, but of different amplitudes. The alternating current received may be read directly from the record made by a syphon recorder, or this current may be employed to operate a syphon Morse printer, by means of an adaptation of Muirhead's gold-wire relay, or a Heurtley magnifier and a local wire relay.

3. The voltage stress along an Atlantic cable when an

4. A special form of cable dynamo to operate at frequencies from 4 to 10 was used in the experiments described.

5. The fundamental principle is developed of never metallically "breaking" the transmitter circuit, which permits of greater accuracy in balancing the duplex bridge. DISCUSSION.

Mr. W. DUDDELL said the author and Dr. Crehore some 20 years ago were trying to get rid of the square corners of the waves due to the upper harmonics. The difficulties | now appeared to have been entirely surmounted. As pointed out in the paper, if the current be broken the harmonics are again introduced, and he thought the method of avoiding this by exact synchronism of the transmitter and generator very ingenious.

Prof. S. P. THOMPSON thought the great merit of the method of working was that it reduced everything to the sine curve. Anything else than a sine curve was less economical financially and electrically. He admired the author's method of obtaining synchronism and of making the alterations in amplitude exactly at the zero points.

Mr. A. CAMPBELL said that frequencies of 4 to 10 seemed to be usually employed. What were the limits of frequency practically possible on an Atlantic cable, for example? Was the limit set by the facility with which the signals could be read by the operator ?

Dr. H. W. MALCOLM thought that by adopting the principle of never breaking the circuit the author was working on the right lines. The distortion in a long cable was so great that the wave-form of the signal received depended very little on the form transmitted, and so the wave-form could be chosen to produce the least disturbance at the transmitting end. For this the use of a series inductance was helpful. Another method was to use a commutator to shut off the recorder while the battery circuit was made or broken.

Prof. G. W. O. Howe asked why the amplitude of the current which passed between signals could not be made zero. Was it an instrumental difficulty, or was there a theoretical advantage in having it large.

The AUTHOR, in reply, said it was desirable to have the amplitude large between signals, so as to depart as little as was practicable from its ideal sine wave. Moreover, the energy was utilised to feed the tape. With regard to frequency, 10 was very high from a cable standpoint, but he was hopeful that when the physicist had attended to the problem of the receiving instrument, much higher frequencies, say within the aural limit, would be possible.

NOTICES OF BOOKS.

Surface Tension and Surface Energy and their Influence on Chemical Phenomena. By R. S. WILLOWS, M.A., D.Sc., and E. HATSCHEK. London J. and A. Churchill. 1915.

THE lectures contained in this book were delivered by one of the authors at the Sir John Cass Technical Institute, and the text of them first appeared in the Chemical World. The lecturer aimed at giving an outline of general principles rather than going fully into experimental details, and he succeeded in producing a clear summary in which the explanations and illustrations are always graphically put. The great difficulties of treating the subject at all adequately without introducing a good deal of mathematics have been surmounted, and the reader will be able to get from the book a good working knowledge of the phenomena of surface tension and surface energy, even if his

discussion of the basal laws the authors proceed to the consideration of the relations which have been established between surface tension and physical constants, and between surface tension and chemical constants, and the experimental work which has been done in the investigation of these relations is admirably reviewed. No re ferences to original literature are given, and the book is essentially one for readers who are specialising in colloidal chemistry, and who do not wish to read through many descriptions of experimental work or discussions of points of theoretical interest only.

Experimental Electricity and Magnetism. By M. FINN, M.Sc. (Dunelm.). London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd.

1915.

In this experimental course of electricity and magnetism the student uses as his source of current the electric lighting supply of the laboratory, and in the first lesson studies the resistance, potential, and heating effects of a circuit of constant E.M.F. He then goes on to practical work with magnets, magnetic induction, and the earth's horizontal magnetic field, and so passes to the magnetic measurement of the electric current. The chemical effects of the current and Ohm's law are then treated, and electrostatics is taken up last of all. The book is distinctly novel in many respects, and will be found valuable for the older boys in schools and for technical students. Young beginners might find the plunge into the middle of things in the very first chapter rather bewildering, but the experi ments, especially those in magnetism, are likely to arouse a boy's interest and induce him to make the best use of his reasoning powers.

THE principles of the methods commonly adopted for extracting from their ores the metals which are used in dental work are well explained in this book, and the preparation of alloys and amalgams is described in considerable detail. The general dental practitioner will find the book particularly useful, giving as it does the composition of all the most valuable and widely used alloys and solders. In the second edition the whole text has been carefully revised, and a good many additions and improvements have been made. The chapter on alloys is contributed by Prof. Campion, of the Royal Technical College, Glasgow, and is quite new, and the chapter on dental amalgams has also been entirely re-written.

Volumetric Analysis. By A. J. BERRY, M.A. Cambridge: The University Press, 1915.

THIS book is intended to fill the gap between quite elementary works on volumetric analysis, in which only easy typical methods are described, and the standard treatises on the subject which are unsuitable for the use of students who have not been through a complete preliminary course. The theoretical aspects of volumetric work are emphasised, and an excellent discussion of the theory of indicators is provided. The actual experimental details are not usually given very fully, but the average student who has done some qualitative analysis should be able to carry out the determinations without additional help or explanation. At the end of the book some typical examples are given to show the magnitude of the errors which may be expected when ordinary uncalibrated measuring instruments are employed. The order in which the methods are described would not appear to be quite the best which could be adopted for students who had done no volumetric work previously, for processes involving the use of potassium permanganate, dichromate, &c., are given first, and acid and alkali titrations are postponed till quite the last.