so difficult that none but professed athlete appeared as competitors, and the exercises degenerated to mere shows of physical strength and brutality. The early Roman gymnastics were also of a military character; and the taste of the Romans led to the exhibition of still more savage and sanguinary scenes; as the naumachiæ, or sea fights, to which slaves and criminals were devoted; or the combats of gladiators, often fatal, with wild beasts or with each other. These, perhaps, gave rise to the bull fights of modern Spain.

In the ancient gymnasia, the palestra was that part in which the athletic exercises were performed. Five of these exercises were called by the Greeks pentathlon, and by the Romans, quinquertium; including leaping, running, wrestling, quoiting, and darting; or in place of the two latter, some writers mention boxing and dancing. Boxing, or the cæstus, was a common amusement of the Romans: and in the game called pancratium, or all fights, two men, disrobed and unarmed, fought together till one of them yielded, barely escaping with his life. Dancing was in early, and in classic times, made a part of religious festivities; but, unlike the dancing now in vogue, it consisted chiefly in measured movements of individual performers. The chariot race was a favorite sport; and the Greeks, as well as the Romans, set a great value on the art of swimming. With the decline of Roman virtue, the ancient gymnasia degenerated into mere haunts of licentiousness and vice.

In the middle ages, the tournament became the favorite amusement; in which knights or cavaliers contended with each other, in the lists, on horseback, and armed with the lance. These festivals originated in France, as early as A. D. 900: and a code of regulations, concerning them, was drawn up by Godfrey de Preuilly, in 1066. With the changes in the art of war, they had already begun to decline, when the death of Henry II., who was mortally wounded in tilting with Count Montgomery, in 1559, led to their abolition in the country which gave rise to them. Swordsmanship, including fencing, was also a favorite practice of the middle ages: and archery is celebrated in the exploits of Robin Hood and his foresters, in the lawless times of Richard and King John. Hunting, has long been a fashionable recreation among the European nobility; and since the days of Izaak Walton, fishing may claim an honorable place among the arts of amusement.

A regular system of Gymnastics, was first matured in Germany, by Salzmann, a clergyman, at his school in Thuringia, about the year 1790. The exercises which he taught, were chiefly running, leaping, climbing, balancing, and swimming. The first treatise on Gymnastics, was written by Guts-Muths, who was a teacher in Salzmann's institution. Jahn proposed the general introduction of Gymnasia, with a view to rouse the youth of Germany in the cause of political freedom; but this course led to their suppression, in 1819 or 20. On the subsequent persecution of the liberal leaders, Mr. Völker went to London, and there established the first Gymnasium in England, in 1824 and Dr. Beck, a pupil of Jahn, founded the first Gymnasium in the United States, at Northampton, Mass., in 1825. At about the same time, a system of Calisthenics, or ex

ercises for ladies, was introduced in London; but none of these systems has met with general favor in our own country; perhaps, because the exercises have heretofore been too monotonous to preserve their interest.

Of sedentary amusements, or games, the invention of chess, is claimed by the Chinese; but, more probably, belongs to Sissa, a brahmin of Hindoostan; and dates back to the fifth century of our era. The object of this invention is said to have been to show the king of the Indies how great was his dependence upon his officers and men; and thus to procure for them a milder treatment. Chess was introduced into Europe by the Crusaders; and has ever been regarded as a scientific game, affording great exercise to the intellectual powers. Dice are said to have been invented in Greece, by Palamedes; and they were also used by the Romans; although the use of them in Rome was prohibited by law. Cards also, were probably invented in the East; and painted cards were made in Italy as early as 1299 but the manufacture of playing cards, by block printing, originated in Germany, between the years 1350 and 1360. The game of billiards originated in France; but at what date, we are not informed.

Our few remarks on Argics, will be distributed under the heads of Field and Water Sports; Gymnastics and Calisthenics; and Games of Chance and Skill.

§ 1. Under the head of Field and Water Sports, we include those active amusements which are enjoyed in the open air, and require free space for their enjoyment. Such are riding, driving, rowing, sailing, swimming, skating, running, bathing or playing ball, quoiting, slinging, darting, archery, shooting, hunting, and fishing. Some of these sports may also be practised in the Gymnasium, or hall prepared for this purpose; but they are all, we think, more appropriate for the field or the water. Riding, on horseback, is a healthy exercise, generally practised in the open country, and especially serviceable in the operations of war. The rider should sit steadily over the centre of motion of the horse, without pressing too hard upon the sides of the saddle; the feet being turned directly to the front, the toes raised, the shoulders thrown back, the breast advanced, the elbows kept near the sides, and the whole body balanced, and adjusted to the motions of the horse. Both riding and driving, whether of several horses, or only one, require a careful study of this noble animal, and the means of managing him with ease and safety.

Rowing, is also a healthy exercise, and very bracing to the arms and chest. It requires a regulated motion of the hands, in order to dip or raise the oar at the proper moment, and then to pull it horizontally, or to carry it back without raising it too high above the water. Sailing, is a more dangerous amusement, though not the less fascinating, for that reason; while it is enjoyed with so little effort. Swimming, is a healthy and useful exercise; by means of which life is often rescued, though sometimes lost. The human body is lighter than its own bulk of water; and hence, by keeping the nostrils above water, no exertion is necessary merely to prevent submersion and drowning. Skating, is perhaps a more exhilarating sport,

but one which should be practised only on ice that is known to be firm and continuous. Running, which may be practised at all seasons, is one of the best juvenile exercises; and auxiliary to most of the games of Batting, or playing ball, the favorite games of boyhood. Quoiting, or the tossing of stones, or metallic disks, called quoits; and Slinging, or throwing stones by whirling a sling, we think less commendable sports than Darting, or hurling the lance, and Archery, or practising with the bow and arrows. Shooting, with fire arms, is one of the most dangerous amusements, suitable only for men, of mature age, and instructed as to the nature of these weapons. Our chief objection to Hunting, and Fishing, is the temptation which they hold out to waste time which should be employed in some nobler pursuit.

§ 2. Under the head of Gymnastics, and Calisthenics, we include those exercises which are suitable for the Gymnasium, or hall of exercise; the former class being intended for young men, and the latter, or Calisthenics, more especially designed for young ladies. Among all these exercises, Fencing, or the use of the small sword or rapier, has long been accounted one of peculiar dignity; and it is one producing excellent development of all the muscular powers; although, on account of the uses to which it has been, and may be applied, it may be liable to serious objections. It is usually practised with foils, or slender and elastic swords, with buttons on the points; the fencers also wearing wire gauze masks, and thick gloves, to protect themselves from injury. In the common guard, or carte, the right foot is thrown forward, the body presented sideways to the antagonist, resting and balancing on the left leg, and inclining a little backward while the foil, with the point slightly elevated, and directed towards the antagonist, is held in the right hand carried forward and slightly depressed, the palm and nails being turned upward; and the left hand is carried back, and raised to the level of the forehead, to balance the body. In the guard of tierce, the position is the same, but the right hand is turned, with the palm inclining downward. We have no room to pursue this subject; nor to speak of the Broadsword Exercise, which indeed belongs more closely to the preceding department, or the Arts of War.

The systematic exercises in Gymnastics, recently introduced in various seminaries, consist in leaping, both in length and in height; hopping and balancing, on one foot at a time, using the feet alternately; leaping with a pole, held in the hands, which are thus exerted at the same time; jumping with a hoop or rope; vaulting, or springing over an object by resting the hands upon it; climbing, up a pole, or a rope, or a ladder, in the latter case supporting the body by the hands alone; walking the rope, or on a horizontal bar, and balancing on the same; swinging and seesaw; swinging the dumb-bells, which are heavy metallic weights; and pulling, pushing, lifting, or carrying heavy bodies. In these, and similar exercises, provision should be made, as far as possible, for avoiding danger; and they should not be taken immediately after eating, nor too violently at the commencement. Of wrestling, and boxing, we think less favorably; and we regard field sports as preferable to those of the hall,

whenever they are equally accessible: but we will venture to add the opinion, that the same amount of exercise, devoted to some of the active arts, as turning, planing, cabinet making, forging and filing, machine making, farming, or gardening, would be alike beneficial to persons of sedentary habits, and far more productive. Of Calisthe nics, or exercises for young ladies, we would particularly recom. mend dancing; which, in the social circle, is, we think, alike graceful and healthy; though its practice in crowded halls, and at late hours, is doubtless in many ways injurious.

§ 3. Of Games of Chance, and of Skill, the most scientific and interesting, is that of Chess; which is played by two persons, on a board divided into 64 squares, painted alternately black and white; the board being so placed that each player may have a white square on the right hand, in the row which is nearest to him. Each player has eight pieces, besides eight pawns; which, at the commencement of the game, are placed in a certain order; those of the different sides being distinguished by their colors. The white queen is placed on the central white square of one side, the king being on her left. The two pieces called bishops, are placed next to the king and queen; the knights next to these; and the castles, or rooks, occupy the corners. The black queen is placed on the central black square; the black king being on her right; and the pawns are placed in the second row on each side. The pawns can only be moved forward, either one or two squares at their first move, and then one square at a time; and they can take the opposite pieces only by moving obliquely forward. The knights move obliquely, three squares at a time; the bishops obliquely, forward or backward; the castles directly, forward, backward, or sideways; and the queen has the moves either of the bishop or the castle, moving, like them, as far as she pleases, if the board be free. The king moves in every direction; but only one square at a time, except in castling, or displacing one of the antagonist castles.

If a frequent indulgence in the game of chess be an unjustifiable waste of time, how much more so must be those games of mere chance, which serve only to consume the fleeting hours of life, and leave no returns of health, usefulness, or improvement; but rather bear with them to eternity the stamp of self-condemnation. Such are games of cards, and of dice; which are alike pernicious and dangerous, as the avenues to effeminacy and dissipation, to gambling, drinking, and all their train of vices: while the poor victim imagines that he is only indulging in a little harmless amusement, till the chains are forged and fastened upon him, which shall drag him down to temporal if not eternal perdition. Some of these games may be interesting, as matters of curiosity, or ingenuity; but a practical knowledge of them, we must regard as one of the most dangerous and disparaging acquirements which a young man can possibly make. If a perusal of the present work has not suggested many sources of amusement, equally recreative, and incomparably more laudable than any of these games, then has the labor here bestowed fallen far short of the writer's object; the moral as well as intellectual profit of all his readers.

APPENDIX.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

A SELECT CATALOGUE OF BOOKS ON ALL THE BRANCHES OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE.

In the following list, an attempt has been made to aid the purchaser and reader in the choice of books. Their number is so great, and their merits are, in many cases, so nearly equal, that to make a selection would be difficult, even for a person well acquainted with them all. The writer can, therefore, only hope that this catalogue will be found to contain a large proportion of valuable works; and that its greatest faults may be remedied hereafter, should a new edition be called for. In order to give some idea of the extent of the works enumerated, the number of volumes is generally designated by the letter v.; and the size of each is marked by a numerical abbreviation of the words folio, (2io.;) quarto, (4to.;) octavo, (8vo.;) duodecimo, (12mo.;) and octodecimo, (18mo.;)—the reference being generally to the American, or to the later foreign editions. The present work is of the common octavo size, as explained, p. 521. The order of subjects here adopted is the same as in the preceding part of the work. (p. 37.) The writer is happy to acknowledge his obligations to Judah Dobson, Esq., of Philadelphia, for the names of several recent and valuable works, which would otherwise have been inadvertently omitted in the following list. Mr. Dobson's extensive agencies in the procurement of foreign as well as domestic publications, have afforded him peculiar facilities in bibliographical researches, which none could have more successfully pursued.

PANTOLOGY.

Wilbur's Lexicon of Useful Knowledge, for Schools, 1 v. 12mo.; Enfield's History of Philosophy, 2 v. 4to.; Tenneman's History of Philosophy, 1 v. 8vo; Morell's History of Philosophy and Science, 1 v. 8vo.; Ampère's Philosphie des Sciences, 1 v. 8vo; The Encyclopædias, (see p. 27); The Library of Useful Knowledge, in numbers, 8vo.; Harper's Family Library, in numbers, 18mo. The Transactions and Memoirs of Learned Societies, (p. 22,) are important and extensive sources of general information. Of Periodicals, relating to knowledge in general, we can only name the Edinburgh, Quarterly, Foreign Quarterly, and Westminster Reviews, Jamieson's Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, and the London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine; and, in our own country, the North American and New York Reviews, the Southern Literary Messenger, the Journal of the Franklin Institute, and Silliman's Journal of Science.

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.*

Horne's Introduction to the Study of Bibliography, 2 v. 8vo.; Taylor's Transmis sion of Ancient Books to Modern Times, 1 v. 8vo.; Eschenberg's Manual of Classical Literature, 1 v. 8vo.; Schoell's Histoire de la Littérature Grecque, 8 v. 8vo., or 4 v. 12mo.; Schoell's Abrégée de la Littérature Romaine, 4 v. 8vo., and abridged in 1 v. 8vo.; Dunlop's Roman Literature, to the Augustan Age, 2 v. 8vo.; Hal.

* Relating to books on all subjects.