considerable numbers, in the train of European armies. The boats, or pontoons, used for a bridge, are anchored or moored at short intervals from each other, with their heads pointing up the stream; after which scantling is laid across them, with proper lashings; and the whole is then covered with suitable planks. Of the construction of military roads; the laying out and fortifying of camps; and the making of military reconnaisances; we have no farther room here to speak.

CHAPTER III.

GEOTACTICS.

We propose the term Geotactics, to include the exercises of troops of all kinds; by which they are enabled to act in concert, in the discharge of their proper functions. The name is from the Greek, raso, or rart, I arrange; and it is sometimes made to include Strategy or Grand Tactics; that is, the management of battles and campaigns: but the later writers have justly considered this a distinct and higher branch of Machetechnics. We have added the prefix Geo, from yn, the earth, to distinguish this from Navitactics, or Naval Tactics; a kindred, but separate branch. Geotactics comprises three principal divisions; Infantry Tactics, relating to troops which use the musket or rifle; Artillery Tactics, relating to those whose chief weapon ist the cannon; and Cavalry Tactics, for troops which fight on horseback, with the sword and pistol. The process of instructing troops in their respective exercises, is called drilling; on which their efficiency essentially depends.

The arts of Tactics were carefully studied by the Greeks and Romans; and greatly contributed to their military successes. The Grecian infantry were grouped in lochoi, or bands; taxes, or companies; xenagia, or battalions; and chiliarchiæ, or regiments; all having their proper officers. Their cavalry were subdivided into ilai, or squadrons; and hipparchies, or regiments; usually of 8 squadrons, or 512 horsemen each. The Grecian phalanx, was drawn up in a rectangular form having from 8 to 16, or even 32 ranks; with a front usually of 500 men: its force having gradually increased from 4,000 to 16,000 infantry. The Roman century, was so called because it originally consisted of 100 men; though the number was afterwards increased. Two centuries constituted a maniple; three maniples, a cohort; and ten cohorts composed a legion; two of which, commanded by a consul, formed a consular army. The Roman legion was gradually increased, from 3000 to 6000 infantry, besides 300 cavalry; which last were drawn up in ten turma, or troops. On the distribution of the different classes of soldiers, in the legion and phalanx, more will be said in treating of Strategy. The modern changes in the weapons of war, introduced corresponding changes in the organization of troops; of which the three principal kinds are variously subdivided. The heavy infantry, or infantry of the line, including grenadiers, armed with muskets and bayonets,

compose the great mass of modern armies. The light infantry, including riflemen, armed with lighter guns, or rifles, are chiefly employed as skirmishers, or advanced guards, or for rapid marches and sudden attacks. The heavy artillery, are foot soldiers, armed with short muskets, and swords; their cannon, and caissons or ammunition waggons, being drawn by horses. The light artillery, or at least the flying artillery, are all mounted, and armed with pistols and broadswords; with light guns, drawn by strong horses. The heavy cavalry, are properly cuirassiers, armed with a helmet and cuirass, and broadsword and pistols: other cavalry are carabiniers, armed with carabines, and straight swords; and among the light cavalry, are hussars, of Hungarian origin, armed with sabres; and lancers, such as the Russian Cossacks. Dragoons, are armed with muskets, and fight either on horseback or on foot: and voltigeurs, are troops that ride behind cavalry to the scene of action; then alight and fight on foot.

We proceed to notice separately the three divisions of Geotactics, Infantry, Artillery, and Cavalry Tactics, already referred to.

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§ 1. Infantry Tactics, is the most important division of this branch; as it embraces, to a considerable extent, the principles of the other divisions. Infantry are usually drawn up in companies, of 50 or men each; and eight or ten companies usually constitute a regiment. In manoeuvring, each regiment is termed a battalion; though this name is often applied to a half regiment. Two regiments form a brigade, commanded by a brigadier general; and two brigades form a division, which is a major general's command. The officers of a regiment, in the order of rank, are the colonel, lieutenant colonel, and major; of whom, the highest who is present takes the command. The regiment is paraded, and orders are announced, by the adjutant, assisted by the serjeant major. The name regiment was first introduced into the French service, in 1567: and the title of colonel was first applied in its present sense, in 1661. The commissioned officers of a company, in the order of rank, are the captain, lieutenant, and ensign; and the subalterns are the sergeants, and corporals, usually appointed by the colonel. The first sergeant, is called the orderly sergeant; who forms the company, and commands it, in the absence of the commissioned officers. A company is usually drawn up in two ranks, the front, and rear. A man in the front rank, called a file leader, and one directly behind him, called his file-closer, together constitute a file of men. A company is divided into two platoons; and a platoon into two sections ; each consisting of two ranks, with as many files as there are men in the front rank. One sergeant, and one corporal are assigned to each section; but their posts or positions we have no room to specify. When in line, the captain is stationed on the right of the company; but, in column, his post is in front. Two companies united constitute a grand division; of which there are usually four in a regiment.

The School of the Soldier, includes such instruction as every soldier must receive, preparatory to entering a company or battalion. The recruits, drilled in small squads, are first taught the position of a soldier, which should be erect and firm; next the dressing or align

ing of themselves towards the right or left, according as the conmand is right DRESS, or left DRESS; and next, the facing, or turning to the right or left, always on the left heel as a pivot, at the command right, or left FACE. They are next taught to march; always commencing with the left foot, and taking steps of 28 inches in length; 90 in a minute for common time, and 120 for quick time, being the standard speed. Troops marching in line, those of the same rank being side by side, change direction, either by wheeling, or turning but when marching by a flank, or those of the same rank following or covering each other, they then change direction by firing, to the right, or left.

The remaining part of the School of the Soldier, relates to the use of arms, or the manual exercise, with the musket and the rifle; but we here refer exclusively to the former. At the command shoulder ARMS, the musket is made to rest vertically against the left shoulder, supported by the left hand placed under the butt; the lock being turned to the front. To order ARMS, when shouldered, the right hand is made to seize the gun, above the lock, and bring it down to the right side; the butt resting on the ground, the lock turned to the rear, and the barrel resting against the right thumb and fore finger. To load in twelve times, the successive commands are, 1. LOAD; 2. Open-pan; 3. Handle-cartridge; 4. Tear-cartridge; 5. Prime; 6. Shut-pan; 7. Cast-about; 8. Charge-cartridge; 9. Draw-rammer; 10. Ram-cartridge; 11. Return-rammer; 12. Shoulderarms. At the first command, the gun is brought to a horizontal position at the right side, pointing to the front, and supported by the left hand and, at the seventh command, the gun is carried around to the left side, with the butt resting on the ground; and the remainder of the cartridge, hitherto held in the right hand, is afterwards inserted in the gun, with the torn end downwards; the paper of the cartridge serving as a wad, both for the powder and ball. To load in four times, and to load at will, are performed in the same manner; but with four commands, in the former case, and only one in the latter.

The School of the Company, includes instruction in all manœu vres which are performed by a company; either alone, or considered as a part of a battalion. It consists of the different exercises, in marching and fighting; as taught in the school of the soldier, but here repeated by the whole company. On parade, the manual exercise is performed with open ranks; the rear rank taking six steps backward, to make room between it and the front. When firing, in close order, the men of the rear rank aim over the right shoulders of their file leaders respectively. When marching in line, if the sergeant, acting as guide, is on the right of the line, the men touch and dress to the right; but if on the left, then the left regulates the movement. When, from marching by a flank, the company is to come into line, the rear files advance rapidly, and take their places on the right or left of the leading file; the file leader of which, retains his position. The platoons, or sections, when marching in column, keep at wheeling distance from each other; so that by halting, and wheeling to the right or left, they would again be in line. Of the

School of the Battalion, or evolutions performed by a single regi ment; and of Evolutions of the Line, as performed by several reguments; we have no room here to speak. The exercises of Light Arullery, and Riflemen, are closely assimilated to those of infantry of the line.

§2. Artillery Tactics, includes the various manoeuvres and exercises required in marching and fighting with cannon. There are four principal kinds of cannon, used in modern warfare; the gun, including the light field piece, and the heavy garrison piece, with others of intermediate size; the carronade, which is shorter and thicker, and of less certain aim, but still very useful in forts and on shipboard; the howitzer, which is also short, thick and strong, but used for firing shells horizontally; and, lastly, the mortar, which is extremely short, having a bore of not more than two calibres in length, and used for throwing bombs or shells to a great elevation. The Paixhan gun, which has recently attracted much notice, is essentially a howitzer, of great weight and strength, and designed for throwing shells of very large size. Of the weight of cannon, and the nomenclature of their parts, we have already spoken, as far as our room would permit, in treating of Ordnance. (p. 489).

Field Artillery, is generally organized in batteries, of six pieces each; four guns, and two howitzers. Allowing eight men to each gun, such a battery requires a company of 48 men, besides officers, drivers, and a small reserve. Eight, or ten such companies, form a regiment of arullery; and a half regiment is sometimes called a battalion. The officers of artillery, have mostly the same titles and functions as those of the infantry; with the duties of which they ought also to be acquainted. When horses are used, as they generally should be, for drawing the guns, they are harnessed to the limbers; (p. 490): and when the gun is unlimbered, it may still be dragged by the horses, by using a long rope, called a prolonge, to connect the gun with the limber. When the men themselves draw the gun, they do it either by draught ropes, or, when in action, by means of bricoles; which are leather straps passing over the shoulder, with a cord and hook to each, for fastening to the carriage.

The Manual of the Piece, is performed by two gunners, and four cannoneers, or matrosses, who are numbered, in order to designate their position. The piece being unlimbered, with the trail resting on the ground, and the muzzle turned to the front, it is then said to be in battery. The men then take posts on each side of the piece, facing towards it, as follows: No. 1., with the sponge and rammer, on the right of the muzzle; No. 2., on its left: No. 3., with portfire and linstock, opposite the cascable, or rear of the piece, on the right; No. 4., with a havresack, for ammunition, opposite to the cascable, on the left; the Gunner of the right, opposite to the middle of the pointing or trail handspike, on the right; and the Gunner of the left, with finger stall, tube pouch, priming tubes, and priming wire, opposite to the pointing hindspike, on the left. At the command to action," the gunner of the right steps to the pointing handspike, gives the order to "loa 1," and assists the gunner of the left in pointing the piece. Nos. 1. and 2. step within the wheels, and sponge and

load the piece; but, while drawing out the moist sponge, it is of vital importance that the gunner of the left should close the vent with the finger, protected by the stall, or leather covering; in order that any fire, previously remaining in the gun, may be extinguished, by the transient exhaustion of the air. The gunner of the left, having aimed the piece, pricks the cartridge, and inserts a priming tube in the vent; when No. 3., having lighted his portfire, touches off the gun, at the command to that effect.*

The School of the Battery, comprehends the manœuvres of several pieces in concert; usually six pieces, manned by an artillery company. Such a battery is subdivided into three sections, of two pieces each; and sometimes into two half batteries. When the horses' heads are directed to the front of the line, and the pieces point to the rear, the battery is said to be in line: but when the reverse is the case, the battery is said to be in battery. In both cases, the caissons are in rear of the guns; which are placed at such a distance apart that the sections may wheel to the right or left, and occupy no greater space in column than in line. It will be seen that in order to advance, from the position in battery, the horses must first turn, with the pieces, and face to the front; and that, in order to resume a position in battery, they must turn again, and face to the rear. Το form a column of sections, fronting to the right, the command is, "by section, right wheel; MARCH;" when the first section of the battery in line, by wheeling to the right, becomes the head of the column; and the other sections cover it, in its rear. Of various other evolutions, depending on similar principles; and of the manœuvres of horse artillery; as well as the exercise of mortars and garrison pieces; and the art of gunnery; our limits forbid any farther notice.

§3. Cavalry Tactics, includes the exercises and evolutions of mounted troops, other than horse artillery, in marching and fighting, on horseback. It embraces, of course, many exercises in common with those of the mounted artillery as the manége, or management of horses and art of riding, and the general principles of formation. Cavalry is usually drawn up in companies, or troops, of from 50 to 100 men each; two of which form a squadron, corresponding to a grand division of infantry; and eight of which usually form a regiThe grades and titles of cavalry officers, for the most part, correspond to those of the officers of artillery and infantry. A troop of cavalry is usually paraded in two ranks, the front and rear; with intervals of six inches between the men in the same rank; and a distance of three feet between the ranks, in close order, and twelve feet, in parade order; but in open order, the rear rank is distant a half squadron's length from the front rank, so that on wheeling by troops, to the right or left, these ranks would form one continuous line.

ment.

A man in the front rank, and the man who covers him in the rear rank, together constitute a file; and when the line forms a column, by filing to the right or left, and taking distance, the two men of the same file are abreast of each other: but the column, in this case,

*The seventh and eighth men, or Nos. 5 and 6, are stationed opposite to the limber: but, in action, their duty is to supply the piece with ammunition, from its caisson, or ammunition waggon, in the rear.