philosophy; and to imagination, the fine arts. These heads, he subdivided into forty-four chapters; most of which are distinct sciences, or branches of knowledge and this classification, it is believed, still remains in the National Library at Washington; part of which was purchased of Mr. Jefferson by Congress. The late Mr. Jay, of New York, divided all knowledge into sciences, and arts; the sciences relating to things, to events, or to duties; and the arts relating either to utility or to pleasure.

Judge Woodward, to whose enthusiasm we are so much indebted, for this history of the classifications of knowledge, himself prepared two classifications; one founded on the distinctions of mind alone, matter alone, and mind and matter connected; the other founded on the distinction of auxiliary and ultimate branches. The subdivisions are the same in both; first into six classes; next into eighteen orders; and lastly into sixty-three or sixty-four distinct sciences: to all of which, names derived from the Greek language are applied; many of them so new, and burthensome to the memory, as to prevent their ever coming into general use. We might criticise this classification, had we the heart to find fault with a writer who has done us so essential a service, and who labored with such devoted zeal for the cause which we have espoused.

The distinguished philosopher Ampère, in his essay on the Philosophy of the Sciences, has given a "natural classification of all human knowledge," devised in 1830, and published in 1834. As this classification bears a closer resemblance, than any of the preceding, to that here proposed, it becomes proper to state, that the classification of knowledge adopted in this work, was actually completed, before the writer had seen Ampère's work, or learned its contents. Ampère adopts a binary or dichotomous division of knowledge, into two kingdoms, Cosmology, and Noology; which are subdivided into four sub-kingdoms, and eight embranchments. These are the sciences, Mathematical, Physical; Natural, Medical; Philosophical, Dialegmatical; Ethnological, and Political; which are farther subdivided into sixteen sub-embranchments, and these into thirty-two sciences of the first order.

The names of these sciences, as arranged by Ampère, are, 1. Arithmology; 2. Geometry; 3. Mechanics; 4. Uranology; 5. General Physics; 6. Technology; 7. Geology; 8. Oryctotechny; 9. Botany; 10. Agriculture; 11. Zoology; 12. Zootechny; 13. Medical Physics; 14. Hygiene; 15. Nosology; 16. Practical Medicine; 17. Psychology; 18. Metaphysics; 19. Ethics; 20. Thelesiology; 21. Glossology; 22. Literature; 23. Technesthetics; 24. Pedagogics; 25. Ethnology; 26. Archeology; 27. History; 28. Hierology; 29. Nomology; 30. Military Arts; 31. Social Economy; and 32. Politics. These sciences of the first order, are farther subdivided into 64 sciences of the second, and 128 sciences of the third order; the names of which are for the most part new or unusual. Ampère considers that each division of knowledge may be regarded under four different points of view; 1. Absolutely, or irrespectively of others, and externally, or regarding only its prominent features; 2. Absolutely, and intrinsically, or exa

mining its nature and elements, considered by themselves; 3. Relatively, or comparatively, and having regard only to its external relations; and, 4. Relatively and intrinsically, having regard to its nature and elements, compared with others. On this basis, Ampère founds his classification of the sciences; which we regard as decidedly superior to any of those which preceded it; though we think it too complex to meet with general favor, as a popular system of knowledge.

The Proposed Classification of Knowledge.

The writer's attention was long since attracted to the subject of a classification of all human knowledge; in connection with the project of an American Association for the promotion of Literature, Science, and the Arts. His first essay on the subject, embracing the principles of the present classification, was submitted to the Dialectic Society of the United States Military Academy, at West Point, in the spring of the year 1829; and was printed, with additions and amendments, in April, 1836, in the Boston Scientific Tracts, for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. The plan has since been materially improved; partly by the aid of learned and judicious friends: and the result of much careful study has been the following System of Pantology; which is now submitted to the reader's candid examination.

In this system, all human knowledge is primarily divided into four great provinces: 1. Psychonomy, including the Laws of Mind, or intellectual sciences; 2. Ethnology, or the Study of Nations, geographically and historically; 3. Physiconomy, or the Laws of the Material World; and 4. Technology, or the Study of the Arts which relate to material objects. These four provinces are next subdivided, each into four departments: and each department embraces a group of several branches of knowledge, closely related to each other. Of the sixteen departments, several were already more or less distinctly formed, and generally recognised and one of them, the department of Mathematics, served as a model, already finished, by which to fashion the others. In these departments, several branches, which like the unformed stars in Astronomy, had not yet been systematically arranged, may, it is believed, find their proper place; thus completing the analysis of general knowledge. To the four provinces, and several of the departments, and to some few of the branches, the liberty has been taken of applying new names, derived from the Greek language; which will at once be understood by the classic scholar; and which, avoiding circumlocution, will admit of a more exact application to these divisions of knowledge, than terms which have already been used in various significations.

In arranging the departments and branches among themselves, four leading principles, have, it is believed, been constantly kept in view, as guides to a natural method. They are the Order of dependence; the Order of time; the Order of place; and the Order of resemblance. The difficulty of adjusting these principles, where they conflict with each other; and of deciding, in such cases, which of them ought to prevail, can only be appreciated by those who have attempted similar applications :-but this difficulty would arise equally in any other

classification; founded, as it is, upon real anomalies, or irregularities, in the very subjects of knowledge. The different branches of knowledge are so concatenated, or interwoven; having, as Cicero expresses it, a common bond or tie, (vinculum commune); that no classification can perfectly satisfy all the conditions; though one may approach much nearer to it than another. That classification which satisfies the greatest number of the most important conditions, is the best, therefore, which the subject admits; and our only resource is to treat of each topic most fully in the place where it most strictly belongs; with careful references to and from those connections or relations, which the system does not bring explicitly into view. This principle of double reference, will be found occasionally necessary in every possible system of human knowledge; and especially so in alphabetical Encyclopædias; which, without it, would be labyrinths without a clue.

If we adopt Ampère's first division of human knowledge, into two great kingdoms.-Noology relating to mind, and Cosmology relating to matter, the first two of our provinces would correspond to the former, and the other two, to the latter. Strictly speaking, however, the second and fourth provinces relate to mind and matter in connection; that is, to man, and his labors, considered as an immortal spirit, transiently inhabiting a mortal body, and thus bound to the material world. Indeed, so closely are mind and matter connected, in all human researches, that we regard this step in the division, as of minor importance; and have accordingly omitted to give it a distinct place. Should it be objected that the names of our provinces, and minor divisions, are not absolutely precise, but admit of greater or less extension; we must reply that the same remark holds true of nearly all the general terms of science; which are in a like degree arbitrary and exceptionable, owing to the inherent defects of human language. But we add, that the names here chosen may be easily adapted, and without confusion, or violation of existing usage, to the ground which they are intended to cover.

With these preliminary remarks, we proceed to resolve the four great provinces of human knowledge into their appropriate departments; briefly explaining, as we proceed, the reasons for the arrangement here adopted.* The acquisition of some one language, is necessarily the first of mental attainments: and this is deemed a sufficient reason, in the absence of opposing ones, for placing first in order, the department of Glossology; or the study of all Languages; including Grammar and Lexicology. As the study of Grammar leads to that of Rhetoric; which is introductory to Logic; and this to Phrenics or Mental Philosophy, and Ethics or Moral Philosophy; and these to Education; it seems proper to place next in order the department of Psychology, in which all these branches are, we think, properly included. The Mental Sciences form a natural introduction to the subjects of Law and Government, including Political Philoso

The derivation of the names of all the provinces, departments, and branches, will be found at the commencement of the several parts and chapters, in the subsequent divisions of this work.

phy and Political Economy; which we would therefore comprehend in the next department, Nomology: and from human laws, we pass, by an easy climax, to the divine laws, and the study of all Religions; constituting the department of Theology; which, from its incomparable importance, deserves the last and highest place in the department of Psychonomy.

The study of mankind at large,-nations, and individuals,-is placed after the studies of Law and Religion; in order that it may not interrupt the series of intellectual sciences, to which it is indeed auxiliary; and also, that the principles derived from them, may be employed for its elucidation. The province of Ethnology, naturally commences with the department of Geography, including Statistics, Voyages, and Travels, which relate chiefly to mankind in society; but reserving the principles of Physical Geography, as far as may be convenient, for the next province, or the material world. The department of Chronography, or History and Antiquities, comes next in order; depending immediately on Geography; and completing the special study of nations. The department of Biography, or the study of men individually, might be merged in that of Chronography, to which it is subservient,-were it not so extensive, and important, as to merit a distinct place. There remains the study of Poetry and Romance; closely allied to the preceding; and which we therefore comprehend in the next department, that of Callography; concluding the province of Ethnology.

Proceeding next to the material world, or the province of Physiconomy, we place in this province, and first in order, the department of Mathematics, as a necessary introduction to the physical sciences and arts; among which it finds its highest applications. Closely connected with this, follows the department of Acrophysics, including Natural Philosophy, with Astronomy and Chemistry; and thus comprehending all the dynamical laws of matter. From Natural Philosophy, we pass, by an easy transition, to the department of Idiophysics, or Natural History; which examines and describes the individual objects of nature; of which Acrophysics traced the elements, and general laws. The study of Natural History, prepares the way for that of the Medical Sciences, or the department of Androphysics; which completes the province of Physiconomy.

In the last province, that of Technology, or the physical arts, depending on the physical sciences, we commence with the study of the materials and machinery which these arts employ; as a necessary introduction to the department of Architechnics, or the Arts of Building and Conveyance. Next to this, we place the remaining arts of most general utility,-Agriculture, Manufactures, and Commerce;-closely associated in public estimation; and together forming the department of Chreotechnics. The Arts of War, which involve various mechanical operations, and serve especially for the defence of commerce, come next in order; consti tuting the department of Machetechnics; comprising both military and naval tactics. There remain only the Fine Arts, including painting and music; which we think should conclude the study of the

arts, as Callography concluded that of nations; the amusing or ornamental portions taking the final place. Thus; the department of Callotechnics, completes the province of Technology; and with it our tree of human knowledge, as represented in the frontispiece of the present volume.*

We will not stop here to explain the subdivisions of these sixteen departments into branches; or of the branches into sections; but reserve these explanations, for their places, in the body of the work. The divisions already made, we consider as the basis of the whole system: and by remembering the names and order of the sixteen departments, we have a key to the whole distribution of knowledge; as the alphabetic order is a key to the finding of all the words in a dictionary. It is true that many of our division lines, between the provinces, departments, and branches, are not precisely commensurate with the terms used to designate them; but the principal explanation of these seeming anomalies, is, that we have endeavored to follow existing arrangements and divisions, as far as they could be made to harmonize with a general system; and thus to make that system more acceptable than if the old lines of demarcation were greatly altered.

We have differed from Ampère, in introducing the study of the human mind, before proceeding to that of the material world. We can see no advantage in placing the study of mathematics before that of languages; or of natural philosophy, before mental and moral; or of medicine, before theology; neither do we think it the common order, in the best systems of education. We believe that the best course is that which prosecutes the four great provinces of knowledge simultaneously; commencing with languages, geography, mathematics, and the useful arts: and so proceeding to the higher studies of each province :-but still the studies of language, and geography, should be in advance of the others. As, however, the provinces cannot well be arranged collaterally, in a single volume; and as some one of them must be named first; we have no hesitation in commencing with that which possesses the highest dignity; and arranging the remaining three according to their relations to this, and to each other.

It would be presumptuous to suppose, that we have in every case succeeded in arranging the divisions of knowledge according to their strongest, and most important relations. As in the natural systems of Botany, the same plant, having strong affinities to two or more different families, or genera, is differently located by skilful botanists; so in Pantology, it cannot be surprising that different opinions should prevail, concerning the arrangement of the branches of knowledge,

* Ampère distributes the branches which we have comprehended in the province of Technology, among the sciences on which they most depend. Thus, he limits Agriculture to the cultivation of plants, and connects it with Botany: but the rearing of animals, he makes a distinct branch, connected with Zoology. Our objection to this arrangement, is, that it breaks the chain of the Physical Sciences, which have close and important relations; and also separates those arts, which are usually and naturally associated, and which often depend on two or more sciences in connection.