of the staging. The second course composed of two or more stone is then built upon the first and set in mortar and clamped and doweled together. The screws are then slacked down until the top of the course is level with the staging, and so continue until the work reaches bottom. The several piers are then connected by iron beams and brick arches covered with concrete, the surface may be paved with any suitable material. I can state from my own experience that such piers have been built in from 12 to 20 feet of water without the least difficulty.

Gen'l Richard Delafield's memoir on foundations in compressible soils is probably the ablest investigation on the subject.

19

PRIMITIVE ARCHITECTURE IN AMERICA.

The Different Stages and Modes of Life Exhibited in the Pre-historic Works of America.

BY REV. S. D. PEET, EDITOR AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN.

One of the most noticeable things in the prehistoric works of America is that they present native architecture in various stages of development. The study of these works furnishes a clue to the states of society in pre-historic times. It also affords us many hints as to the pre-historic races, and their origin, growth and development. There is need, however, that we have a better understanding of these stages themselves. Now we propose to study the pre-historic works of America, so that, if possible, we can trace the line of development of society, or if not, so that we can discover various grades which have been presented by it. One of the difficulties in tracing a connected development is that these works are so separated from one another by geographical lines, that we cannot ascribe them to the same people. This is favorable in one respect, because the lines which separate the grades are distinct, and we can thus determine the characteristics which belong to each. There are all the differences between the pre-historic works found on this continent that have been supposed to exist in the works which have been so faithfully studied in the European countries. But the differences here are marked by peculiarities of architecture, rather than those of art; the cultus here being exhibited by the works, rather than by the 'relics.

There are no names which define or describe the stages of society here, such as are used in Europe, but those stages, nevertheless, exist, being shown here by primitive architecture, as they are there by primitive art. The ages which have been so clearly distinguished, and which depend upon the material of the relics found in Europe, have not been identified here, but the grades of society are shown by the material used in architectural struct

ures, and so the lines of distinction are somewhat similar. The geographical lines separate the works, and the material distinguishes them. In Europe the different relics are found in the same locality, and successive stages of cultus have been discovered, being identified by the material used, as well as by other characteristics. It is supposed that successive waves of population have thus left their tokens; possibly different races have overrun the same locality. But the growth of society has been much more connected in Europe than in America. Here wide districts have separated the races and their works, and the ruins which are discovered in these districts are so unlike, that they indicate different lines of development, if not different ethnic origin. Wherever a succession of races has been discovered, we have found that some of the races had prevailed elsewhere, and intruded themselves upon the domain of others. The study of the works, peculiar to each geographical locality, has revealed this fact, for it is easy to trace the resemblances and so identify the works with the races. If there are earth-works found in Mexico and Central America, they are not the characteristics or predominant structures. If there are stone cysts and occasional stone-walls in the Mississippi Valley, still the earth works are the prevailing structures here. This identifying the architectural peculiarities of one locality, in the midst of the works belonging to another, has this advantage; it enables us to see the grades which architecture has reached and associate them with the different states of society. The only disadvantage is, that it prevents us from tracing any connected development; in other words, instead of blending together, as they do in Europe, the works are here separated in wide gaps; great difference in architectural forms being discovered. It is not difficult to trace the grades, but it is difficult to discover the connecting links.

We propose to examine the works which are peculiar to the different geographical localities and to compare them with one another, and so endeavor to ascertain if there was any separate line of development. The first class of works which we shall examine will be those which are known to have been erected by the Indian tribes and which prevailed, extensively, both on the Atlan

tic and the Pacific coast. The second will be those found in the Mississippi valley which are generally known by the name of the Mound Builders works. The third, those found in the Great Plateau of the West, known as the Puebloes. The fourth class are those which belonged to the civilized races of Mexico and Central America. We might, indeed, also examine the works of the different geographical localities, and compare them, and so endeavor to ascertain whether there was any connection between them; that is to say, whether there was any development of one into the other. If the development is continental instead of local, it should be recognized. The transition from one to the other is so abrupt, that it is difficult to trace any connection. The architectural forms follow different types, and the whole character of the pre-historic works, in the separate localities, show a development so distinct that we can hardly find anything in

common.

I. We shall consider first, then, the House Architecture, and, afterward, the Military Works, which are known to belong to the various Indian tribes.

In considering the works of this class, however, we shall examine them in all localities, wherever the Indian tribes are known to have prevailed, and so compare them with the works of each locality.

We shall not, then, in this paper, undertake to trace any common type through the different geographical localities, but shall refer to those which are characteristic of the separate localities, and shall, by this means, undertake to show what different grades of architecture have appeared in the different portions of this continent.

We may see, also, that these different grades are associated with the different states of society; the first, with the hunter life; the second, with the agricultural; the third, with the village life; the fourth, with the civilized state.

In taking this position, we do not deny but that these different states of society and the corresponding architecture prevailed to a certain extent outside of the particular localities to which they