PAGE nions of P. Mariana-Opinions of the venerable Palafox on the subject 485. Reference to historical sources to ascertain the march of the deve- 486. Passages in which St. Anselm expounds his views on religious sub- EUROPEAN CIVILISATION. CHAPTER I. NATURE AND NAME OF PROTESTANTISM. vantage of them, if they were capable of being turned to account. When introduced into a country, it THERE is a fact in existence among never rested until it had obtained guacivilised nations, very important on rantees for its continued existence; account of the nature of the things and it succeeded in doing so every which it affects-a fact of transcendent where. After having obtained vast importance, on account of the number, establishments in Europe-which it variety, and consequence of its influ- still retains-it was transported into ences a fact extremely interesting, other parts of the world, and infused because it is connected with the prin- into the veins of simple and unsuspectcipal events of modern history: that ing nations. fact is Protestantism. In order to appreciate a fact at its Like a clap of thunder, it attracted just value, to embrace it in all its reat once the attention of all Europe; lations, and to distinguish properly on one side it spread alarm, and on the between them, it is necessary to exaother excited the most lively sympa-mine whether the constituting princithy: it grew so rapidly, that its adver-ple of the fact can be ascertained, or saries had not time to strangle it in its at least whether we can observe in its cradle. Scarcely had it begun to exist, appearance any characteristic trait caand already all hope of stopping, or pable of revealing its inward nature. even restraining it, was gone; when, This examination is very difficult when emboldened by being treated with re- we have to do with a fact of the kind spect and consideration, it became and importance of that which now ocevery day more daring; if exasperated cupies our attention. In matters of by rigour, it openly resisted measures this sort, numbers of opinions accumuof coercion, or redoubled and concen- late in the course of time; and all attrated its forces, to make more vigor-tempt to support themselves by arguous attacks. Discussions, the pro-ments. The inquirer, in the midst of found investigations and scientific me- so many and such various objects, is thods which were used in combating it, contributed to develop the spirit of inquiry, and served as vehicles to propagate its ideas. By creating new and prevailing interests, it made itself powerful protectors; by throwing all the passions into a state of fury, it aroused them in its favour. It availed itself by turns of stratagem, force, seduction, or violence, according to the exigences of times and circumstances. It attempted to make its way in all directions; either destroying impediments, or taking ad perplexed, disconcerted, and confounded; and if he wish to place himself in a more advantageous point of view, he finds the ground so covered with fragments, that he cannot make his way without risk of losing himself at every step. The first glance which we give to Protestantism, whether we consider its actual condition, or whether we regard the various phases of its history, shows us that it is very difficult to find any thing constant in it, any thing which can be assigned as its constituent cha B racter. Uncertain in its opinions, it modifies them continually, and changes them in a thousand ways. Vague in its tendencies, and fluctuating in its desires, it attempts every form, and essays every road. It can never attain to a well-defined existence; and we see it every moment enter new paths, to lose itself in new labyrinths. Catholic controversialists have pursued and assailed it in every way; ask them what has been the result? They will tell you that they had to contend with a new Proteus, which always escaped the fatal blow by changing its form. If you wish to assail the doctrines of Protestantism, you do not know where to direct your attacks, for they are unknown to you, and even to itself. On this side it is invulnerable, because it has no tangible body. Thus, no more powerful argument has ever been urged, than that of the immortal Bishop of Meaux,-viz. "You change; and that which changes is not the truth." An argument much feared by Protestantism, and with justice; because all the various forms which are assumed to evade its force, only serve to strengthen it. How just is the expression of this great man! At the very title of his book, Protestantism must tremble: The History of the Variations! A history of variations must be a history of error. (See note at the end of the vol.) matters of faith, whether it be looked upon as a matter of human reason alone, or as an individual inspiration from heaven. These unceasing changes, which we ought not to be surprised at finding in Protestantism, because they essentially belong to it, show us that it is not in possession of the truth; they show us also, that its moving principle is not a principle of life, but an element of dissolution. It has been called upon, and up to this time in vain, to fix itself, and to present a compact and uniform body. How can that be fixed, which is, by its nature, kept floating about in the air? How can a solid body be formed of an element, whereof the essential tendency is towards an incessant division of particles, by diminishing their reciprocal affinity, and increasing their repellent force? It will easily be seen that I speak of the right of private judgment in If there be any thing constant in Protestantism, it is undoubtedly the substitution of private judgment for public and lawful authority. This is always found in union with it; and is, properly speaking, its fundamental principle: it is the only point of contact among the various Protestant sects, the basis of their mutual resemblance. It is very remarkable that this exists, for the most part, unintentionally, and sometimes against their express wishes. However lamentable and disastrous this principle may be, if the coryphæi of Protestantism had made it their rallying-point, and had constantly acted up to it in theory and practice, they would have been consistent in error. When men saw them cast into one abyss after another, they would have recognised a system,—false undoubtedly; but, at any rate, a system. As it is, it has not been even that: if you examine the words and the acts of the first Reformers, you will find that they made use of this principle as a means of resisting the authority which controlled them, but that they never dreamed of establishing it permanently; that if they laboured to upset lawful authority, it was for the purpose of usurping the command themselves; that is to say, that they followed, in this respect, the example of revolutionists of all kinds, of all ages, and of all countries. Every body knows how far Luther carried his fanatical intolerance; he who could not bear the slightest contradiction, either from his own disciples or any body else, without giving way to the most senseless fits of passion, and the most unworthy outrages. Henry VIII. of England, who founded there what is called the liberty of thinking, sent to the scaffold those who did not think as he did; and it was at the instigation of Calvin that Servetus was burnt alive at Geneva. I insist upon this point, because it seems to me to be of great importance. Men are but too much inclined sects are not truly Christian. But to pride; and if they heard it constantly repeated, without contradiction, that the innovators of the 16th century proclaimed the freedom of thought, a secret interest might be excited in their favour; their violent declamations might be regarded as the expressions of a generous movement, and their efforts as a noble attempt to assert the rights of intellectual freedom. Let it be known, never to be forgotten, that if these men proclaimed the principle of free examination, it was for the purpose of making use of it against legitimate authority; but that they attempted, as soon as they could, to impose upon others the yoke of their own opinions. Their constant endeavour was, to destroy the authority which came from God, in order to establish their own upon its ruins. It is a painful necessity to be obliged to Within the vast limits marked out give proofs of this assertion; not be- by this name, there is room for every cause they are difficult to find, but error and for every sect. You may because one cannot adduce the most deny with the Lutherans the liberty' incontestable of them without calling of man, or renew with the Arminians to mind words and deeds which not the errors of Pelagius. You may adonly cover with disgrace the founders mit with some that real presence, which of Protestantism, but are of such a you are free to reject with the Calvinnature, that they cannot be mentioned ists and Zuinglians; you may join with without a blush on the cheek, or writ- the Socinians in denying the divinity ten without a stain upon the paper. (2.) of Jesus Christ; you may attach yourProtestantism, when viewed in a self to Episcopalians, to Puritans, or, mass, appears only a shapeless collec- if you please, to the extravagances of tion of innumerable sects, all opposed the Quakers; it is of no consequence, to each other, and agreeing only in for you always remain a Protestant, one point; viz. in protesting against for you protest against the authority the authority of the Church. We only of the Church; your field is so extenfind among them particular and exclusive, that you can hardly escape from sive names, commonly taken from the it, however great may be your wandernames of their founders; in vain have ings; it contains all the vast extenthey made a thousand efforts to give that we behold on coming forth from themselves a general name expressive the gates of the Holy City. (4.) of a positive idea; they are still called after the manner of philosophical sects. Lutherans, Calvinists, Zuinglians, Anglicans, Socinians, Arminians, Anabaptists, all these names, of which I could furnish an endless host, only serve to show the narrowness of the circle in which these sects are enclosed; and it is only necessary to pronounce them, to show that they contain nothing universal, nothing great. Every body who knows any thing of the Christian religion must be convinced by this fact alone, that these CHAPTER II. CAUSES OF PROTESTANTISM. WHAT, then, were the causes of the appearance of Protestantism in Europe, of its development, and of its success? This is a question well worthy of being examined to the bottom, because it will lead us to inquire into the origin of this great evil, and will put us in a condition to form the best. idea of this phenomenon, so often but so imperfectly described. It would be unreasonable to look for the causes of an event of this nature and importance in circumstances either trivial in themselves, or circumscribed by places and events of a limited kind. It is a mistake to suppose that vast results can be produced by trifling causes; and if it be true that great events sometimes have their commencement in little ones, it is no less certain that the commencing point is not the cause; and that to be the commencement of a thing, and to be its real cause, are expressions of a widely different meaning. A spark produces a dreadful conflagration, but it is because it falls upon a heap of inflammable materials. That which is general must have general causes; and that which is lasting and deeply rooted must have lasting and profound causes. This law is true alike in the moral as in the physical order; but its applications cannot be perceived without great difficulty, especially in the moral order, where things of great importance are sometimes meanly covered; where each effect is found allied with so many causes at once, connected with them by ties so delicate, that, possibly, the most attentive and piercing eye may miss altogether, or regard as a trifle, that which, it may be, has produced very great results: trifling things, on the other hand, are frequently so covered with glitter, tinsel, and parade, that it is very easy to be deceived by them. We are always too much inclined to judge by appearances. It will appear from these principles, that I am not disposed to give great importance to the rivalry excited by the preaching of indulgences, or to the excesses which may have been committed by some inferiors in this matter; these things may have been an occasion, a pretext, a signal to commence the contest, but they were of too little importance in themselves to put the world in flames. There would be, perhaps, more apparent plausibility in seeking in the characters and positions of the first reformers for the causes of Protestantism; but this also would be unsatisfactory. People lay great stress on the violence and fury of the writings and speeches of Luther, and point out how apt this savage eloquence was to inflame men's minds, and drag them into the new errors by the deadly hatred against_Rome with which it inspired them. Too much stress also is laid on the sophistical art, the order and elegance of the style of Calvin; qualities which served to give an appearance of regularity to the shapeless mass of new errors, and make them more acceptable to men of good taste. The talents and other qualities of the various innovators are described in the same way with more or less truth. I will not deny to Luther, Calvin, and the other founders of Protestantism, the titles on which their sad celebrity is founded; but I venture to assert that we cannot attribute to their personal qualities the principal influence on the development of this evil, without palpably mistaking and underrating the importance of the evil itself, and forgetting the instructions of universal history. If we examine these men with impartiality, we shall find that their qualities were not greater, if so great, as those of other sectarian leaders. Their talents, their learning, and their knowledge, have passed through the crucible of criticism, and there is, even among the Protestants, no well-instructed and impartial person who does not now consider the extravagant eulogiums which have been lavished upon them as the exaggerations of party. They are classed among the number of those turbulent men who are well adapted to excite revolutions; but the history of all times and countries, and the experience of every day, teach that men of this kind are not uncommon, and that they arise every where when a sad combination of events affords them a fit opportunity. When causes more in proportion to Protestantism, by their extent and importance, are sought for, two are commonly pointed out: the necessity of reform, and the spirit of liberty. "There were numerous abuses," says one party; "legitimate reform was neglected: this negligence produced |