an edict of universal toleration, he soon showed a of Rufinus are confirmed in the fullest manner by Ammarked hostility to the Christians: he took the reve- mianus Marcellinus, himself a heathen writer: "When nues from the churches, and ordered that those who Alypius," observes Ammianus, "was plying the work had assisted in pulling down the heathen temples vigorously, and the governor of the province was lendshould rebuild them. This was the signal for a fearfuling his aid, fearful globes of fire, bursting forth repeatreaction and persecution against the Christians in the edly from the earth close to the foundations, scorched provinces, where many were imprisoned, tormented, the workmen, and rendered the place, after frequent and even put to death. Julian restrained or punished trials on their part, quite inaccessible." (Amm. Marsome of these disorders, but with no very zealous hand. cellinus, 23, 1.-Compare Rufin., 10, 37.-Cassiod., 6, There was evidently a determined struggle throughout 43.-Greg. Nazianz., Orat., 4.-Chrysostom, Homil., 3, the empire between the old and the new religion, and adv. Jud.-Socrates, 3, 20.-Sozomen, 5, 22.-TheodoJulian wished for the triumph of the former. He for- retus, 3, 15.) The Jewish rabbis, in their annals, attest bade the Christians to read, or teach others, the works the same fact; and even Basnage, though a determined of the ancient classic writers, saying that, as they re- enemy to such miracles, is nevertheless compelled, jected the gods, they ought not to avail themselves when speaking of this Jewish testimony, to remark, of the learning and genius of those who believed in "Cet aveu des Rabins est d'autant plus considérable them. (Juhani Op., Epist., 42, ed. Spanh.) He also qu'il est injurieux à la nation, et que ces messieurs ne forbade their filling any office, civil or military, and sont pas accoutumés à copier les ouvrages des Chrétiens." subjected them to other disabilities and humiliations. (Hist. des Juifs, liv. 6.) “This specious and splendid Julian has been called 46 the Apostate;" but it seems miracle," as Gibbon sneeringly terms it, has given very doubtful whether, at any period of his life after rise to much diversity of opinion in modern times. his boyhood, he had been a Christian in heart. The Warburton strenuously advocates its authenticity, and bad example of the court of Constantius, and the most of the sounder theologians agree with him in schisms and persecutions that broke out in the bosom this opinion. Lardner, however, doubts its truth. of the church, may have turned him against religion (Jewish and Heathen Testimonies, vol. 4, p. 47, seqq.) itself, while his vanity, of which he had a considerable More sceptical writers speak of inflammable air, which share, and which was stimulated by the praises of the had long been pent up in the vault under the templesophists, made him probably consider himself as des- mountain, igniting and bursting forth on a sudden. tined to revive both the old religion and the glories of (Consult Michaëlis, Götting. Mag., 1783, page 772.) the empire. That he was no believer in the vulgar Salverte promptly settles the whole affair by suppo mythological fables is evident from his writings, es-sing that it was merely the explosion of a mine, which pecially the piece called "the Cæsars;" and yet he had been prepared by the Christians! (Des Sciences possessed great zeal for the heathen divinities, and he Occultes, vol. 2, p. 224.)-Let us now return to Julian. wrote orations in praise of the mother of the gods and Having set off at length from Antioch on his Persian the sun. Making every allowance for the difficulties expedition, with a brilliant army reckoned at sixtyof his position and the effect of early impressions, he five thousand men, he crossed the Euphrates, took may be fairly charged with a want of candour and of several fortified towns of Mesopotamia, then crossed justice, and with much affectation bordering upon the Tigris, and made himself master of Ctesphon. hypocrisy. If we choose to discard the invectives Here his progress ended. The close Roman legions of Gregory of Nazianzus, of Cyril, and of Jerome, were harassed on all sides by the light cavalry of we may be allowed, at least, to judge him by the the Persians, and reduced to great distress for want narrative of Ammianus, and by his own works, and the of provisions. Still they presented a formidable front result is not favourable to his moral rectitude or his to the enemy, and Sapor, the Persian king, was insobriety of judgment. A very learned and very tem- clined to come to terms, when, in the course of an perate modern writer, Cardinal Gerdil, in his Con- attack made upon the Roman army while on its march. siderations sur Julien," in the 10th volume of his Julian, whom the heat of the weather had induced works, has so judged him; he has founded his opin- to lay aside his cuirass, received a mortal wound in ion, not on the fathers, but on the accounts of Julian's his side from a javelin. Being carried to his tent, panegyrists, Libanius and other heathen writers.-Ju- he expired the following night (June 26th, A.D. 363). lian, having resolved on carrying on the war against He died with perfect calmness and composure, surthe Persians, repaired to Antioch, where he resided rounded by his friends, conversing on philosophical for several months. His neglected attire, his un- subjects, and expressing his satisfaction at his own combed beard, and the philosophical austerity of his past conduct since he had been at the head of the emhabits, drew upon him the sarcasms of the corrupt pop- pire. His remains were carried to Tarsus in Cilicia, ulation of that city. The emperor revenged himself according to his directions, and his successor Jovian by writing a satire against them, called Moonwywv erected a monument to his memory. Such was the (Misopōgon), and, what was worse, by giving them a end of Julian, in the 32d year of his age, after a reign rapacious governor.-It was during his residence at of one year and about eight months from the death of Antioch that Julian undertook to aim what he thought Constantius. (Encycl. Us. Knowl., vol. 13, p. 144, would prove a deadly blow to Christianity. An order seq.-Gibbon, Decline and Fall, c. 21, seqq.)—It is was issued for rebuilding the temple of Jerusalem; still a very common tradition, that when Julian felt the Jews were invited from all the provinces of the himself wounded, he caught in the hollow of his hand empire, to assemble on the holy mountain of their fa- some of the blood that issued from his side, and, flingthers, and a bold attempt was thus made to falsify the ing it in the air, exclaimed, "Take thy fill, Galilean; language of ancient prophecy, and annul, if we may thou hast conquered me, but still do I renounce thee!" venture so to speak, the decree which had been pro- and that, after having thus blasphemed against our Sanounced by the Almighty against his once chosen, but viour, he indulged in a thousand imprecations against now rejected, people. The accomplishment of this da- his own gods, by whom he saw himself abandoned. ring and impious scheme was intrusted to Alypius, (Compare Sozom., 6, 2.) The whole is a mere fable. who had been governor of Britain, and every effort was Equally undeserving of credit is another account, that made to ensure its success, as well on the part of the Julian, having been placed, after receiving his wound, 'imperial sophist" as on that of the Jews themselves. on the banks of a river, wished to precipitate himself But the attempt was an unavailing one, and was sig- into its waters, that he might pass away from the eyes nally and miraculously interrupted. Few historical of men, and be regarded as an immortal.--Julian had facts, indeed, rest on graver and more abundant testi- many brilliant, and some amiable qualities; his mormony. The narratives of Gregory of Nazianzus andals were pure, and even austere; his faults were chiefly

66

those of judgment, probably influenced by the impres- | Divine founder. Either the subject was considered, in sions of early youth, an ardent and somewhat mystic imagination, and the flattery of those around him. Of all the writers of antiquity who have depicted the character of Julian, Ammianus Marcellinus appears to be the one who has done it with the most truth. This historian renders justice to the eminent qualities of Julian, without, at the same time, concealing his defects. The perfect impartiality, the candour and frankness of this soldier, merit equal confidence both when he praises and condemns. As a writer, Julian deserves praise for the purity and eloquence of his style. It is apparent from his works that he had read all the classical authors, for they are filled with allusions to passages of these authors, to their opinions, and to images and expressions employed by them. These allusions give sometimes to the writings of Julian a certain obscurity, because many of the productions to which he refers no longer exist. To most extensive reading he united much talent and much vigour of imagination. Morals, metaphysics, and theology, the last of which is with him nothing more than a species of allegorical metaphysics, were the subjects of which he treated in preference. The works left by Julian are of three classes. 1. Harangues. 2. Satires. 3. Letters.With the exception merely of the fragments preserved by St. Cyrill and Socrates, we have lost the work Against the Christians and against their creed. The Emperor Julian adopted every means by which, without openly persecuting Christianity, he might degrade it. and cause its followers to fall into contempt. A philosopher himself, he believed that there existed no surer mode of restoring paganism, at the expense of the new religion, than by attacking the latter through the means of a work full of strong arguments, and in which satire also should not be spared. A man of letters, he wanted not a large portion of self-complacency and conceit; and it appeared to him, that no one was more proper to be the author of such a work, than he who had studied the spirit of the two contending systems of religion, and who had publicly declared himself the patron of a form of worship fast sinking into oblivion, and the enemy of a religion, to the triumph of which he should have reflected that the safety of his own family was intimately attached. Such, no doubt, were the reasons which induced Julian to enter the lists against Christianity. He wrote his work during the winter evenings which he spent at Antioch, in the last year of his life. Surrounded by pagan philosophers, who expected from this prince the complete re-establishment of the religion of their fathers, with which, in their blindness, they connected the renovation of the splendour and power of the Roman empire, the imperial author was encouraged by their suffrages, and no doubt aided by their abilities. Apollinarius of Laodicea repelled the attack of Julian by the arms of reason alone; exposing, in a treatise which he wrote "on Truth," the dogmas of the heathen philosophers respecting Deity, and that, too, without at all calling in the Holy Scriptures to the aid of his argument. This work of Apollinarius must have been composed very short time after the appearance of the emperor's treatise, since Julian appears to have read it before be quitted Antioch, March 5th, A.D. 363. Julian pretended to contemn his opponent, and wrote to certain bishops of the church this paltry jeu de mots: 'Avkyvwv, čуvwv, KATÉyvwv, "I have read, comprehended, condemned it." To this one of them, probably St. Basil, replied, 'Avéyvwç, úhλ' ovк čyvwç εl yàp Eyvwç, OVK AV KATÉYVOS. "Thou hast read, but not comprehended it; for if thou hadst comprehended it thou wouldst not have condemned it." Fifty years, however, elapsed before the work of Julian was completely refuted by productions carefully composed, and which entered into a detail of the sophisms which had been advanced against Christianity and the character of its

in

the interval, as completely exhausted, or else the dreadful catastrophe which terminated the life of Julian, and which was viewed as a punishment inflicted by Divine vengeance, had caused his writings to fall into neglect. After the period of time above alluded to, Philip of Side, St. Cyrill of Alexandrea, and Theodoret, undertook the task of completely prostrating the arguments of the "apostate emperor," and it is to the work of St. Cyrill that we owe our knowledge of a part of that of Julian. From this refutation, which bears the following title, Ὑπὲρ τῆς τῶν Χριστιανῶν ἐναγούς θρησ κείας, πρὸς τὰ τοῦ ἐν ἀθέοις Ἰουλιανοῦ, “ Of the holy religion of the Christians, in reply to the writings of the impious Julian," we learn that it was divided into seven books, each of small extent; and that the first three bore this title: Αναστροφὴ τῶν Εὐαγγελίων, "The Overthrow of the Gospels." These are the only ones which St. Cyrill has taken the trouble to refute. It is not difficult to perceive that an adroit sophist, such as Julian was, could easily give to his work a specious appearance, calculated to impose on weak and shallow minds, especially when the author himself was surrounded by all the adventitious circumstances of rank and power. The mode adopted by Julian, of appearing to draw his arguments against Christianity from the Scriptures themselves, gives an air of candour and credibility to a work; but it requires no great acumen to show, that Julian either did not understand, or else affected to misunderstand, the doctrines which he combated; and that he has perverted facts and denied indubitable truths. The success which his work would no doubt have had if his life had been prolonged, would only have been due to the talent which he possessed in wielding the arms of ridicule; arms the more dangerous, because the wounds which they inflict never cicatrize, and because malevolence, taking pleasure in believing what is false, closes its eyes against the truth when the latter undertakes to destroy that falsity. It was by the aid of the refutation of St Cyrill, mentioned above, that the Marquis d'Argens undertook in the 18th century to restore the lost work of Julian. It was published in Greek and French, at Berlin, 1764, in 8vo, and reprinted in the same city in 1767. Had the object of this individual been to manifest to the world the errors of the Roman infidel, and to teach the pretended philosophers of the day how little philosophy has to advance that is worthy of reliance when religion is the theme, his undertaking would have been a laudable one. But such was not the end which the Marquis d'Argens had in view. If he did not dare to declare openly for Julian, he yet could find a thousand reasons for excusing his conduct. The consequence has been, that the production of D'Argens has been attacked by two German scholars, and the latter of the two has combated with so much success the sophisms and falsities in question, that, after having read the two works, every unprejudiced mind will acknowledge that the production of the French philosopher has been completely refuted. The first of the German writers just alluded to, G. F. Meier, published his work in 1764, at Halle, in 8vo, under the following title: " Beurtheilung der Betrachtungen des herrn Marquis v. Argens, über den Kaiser Julian;" the other, W. Crichton, who was subsequently a clergyman at Königsberg, entitled his production, " Betrachtungen über des Kaiser Julian Abfall von der Christlichen Religion, und Vertheidigung des Heidenthums," Halle, 1765, 8vo.-We will now pass to an enumeration of the works of Julian that have come down to our own times. 1. 'Eyrúшov пpòs τὸν Αὐτοκράτορα Κωνστάντιον, " Eloge on the Emperor Constantius." 2. Hepi Tŵν ανтокρúтороs πрús̟ewv, repì Baoikeias, " Of the actions of an emperor, or of government." 3. Εγκώμιον Εὐσεβίας Tns Bacididos, " Eloge on, the Empress Eusebia."

These three productions were composed by Julian in | Julian, had been recalled by Constantius, who wished his youth, when he was striving to conciliate the fa- to deprive his cousin of the aid that was to be derived vour of Constantius, on whom his fortunes depended. from his great information and experience, and to They contain some fine thoughts, and are written with which the jealousy of the emperor attributed the sucmore simplicity than one would expect in composi- cesses of the young prince. The farewell which Jutions at this period. In the first of these harangues, lian takes of his friend is interesting and affecting, and Julian had to pronounce a eulogy on one who had been does honour to his feelings: he puts it in the mouth of the murderer of his father, of his brother, in a word, Pericles compelled to part from Anaxagoras.-9. "Meas he himself says on another occasion, the execution-moir addressed to the philosopher Themistius." This er of his family, and his personal enemy. It was a morceau, to which the philosopher has given the form theme worthy the pliant and fertile genius of the art of a letter, has no title: the editors of Julian, howful Julian, but just decorated with the title of Cæsar ever, have separated it, on account of its length, from by that very Constantius who had on other occasions the other letters of this prince. Themistius had felicisought for pretexts to destroy him. To dissemble, tated Julian on his nomination as Cæsar; and foreseethen, the faults of this prince, and to exaggerate his ing, no doubt, that the young prince would succeed to good qualities, in such a panegyric, would be the aim the empire, had traced for him the line of his duty, and proposed to himself by the writer; and yet, it must in laid before him what the world expected at his hands. justice be remarked, that, with some exceptions, the Julian replies to this letter with the greatest ability and character of Constantius, as drawn by Julian, coincides moderation.-10. Manifesto against the Emperor Conin its general features with that delineated by the his- stantius, in the form of a letter to the senate and peotorians of the time. In the second harangue, written ple of Athens. Julian addresses, as he says, his justiprobably after he had resided some years in Gaul, Ju-fication for taking up arms against Constantius, to the lian but ill conceals his inclination towards paganism. people of Athens, on account of the love of justice He openly professes in this piece the doctrine of Plato exhibited by them in ancient times. It is a piece exand the heathen philosophers, and constantly affects to tremely important in an historical point of view, since substitute the plural form " gods" for the singular Julian, no longer caring for his cousin, exposes the "God." The third of these discourses, addressed to crimes and weaknesses of this emperor. The letter the princess to whom Julian owed his life and his dig- appears to have been written a short time previous to nity of Cæsar, is too profusely adorned, and burdened, the death of Constantius.-11. A long fragment of a as it were, with erudition.-4. Eis Tòv Baoiλéa "Hh-letter to a pagan pontiff, containing instructions relaον, "In honour of the Sun, the monarch." A dis- tive to the duties to be performed towards the miniscourse addressed to the prefect Sallustius.-5. Eis ters of paganism, of whom Julian, by virtue of his imThν unτépa deŵv, “In Honour of the Mother of the perial station, was sovereign pontiff. This letter apGods." These two productions are full of enthusi- pears to have been written during his stay at Antioch. asm, and are written in a species of poetical prose. Setting aside the slanders which this piece contains They contain many allegorical allusions, which to us against the Christians, it may be regarded as well decan only appear frigid and ridiculous. In the system serving a perusal.—12. Καίσαρες, ἢ Συμπόσιον, “The of Julian, the world existed from all eternity; but Casars, or the Banquet." This is one of the most there existed at the same time a succession of causes, talented productions of Julian, and, if we throw out of the principal one of which was the Being who subsist-consideration the impious allusions which it contains, ed cf himself, the Being supremely good, the primary one of the most agreeable effusions of antiquity. It sun the other causes or principles, namely, the intel- is a faithful and true picture of the virtues and vices of ligent world without any sun, and the visible sun, the predecessors of Julian. The plan of the work is were produced from the primary cause, but necessarily as follows. He relates to a friend a story in the form and from all eternity: Cybele, or the mother of the of a dialogue, after the manner of Lucian. Romulus, gods, belongs to the third generative principle, and ap- named Quirinus after his apotheosis, gives a feast at pears to identify herself with it; Attis or Gallus is an the Saturnalia, and invites all the gods to it. Wishattribute of this principle, and consequently of Cybele; ing, at the same time, to regale the Cæsars, he causes and seems, moreover, to make part of the fifth body, a separate table to be set for them below the moon, in which is the soul of the sun and the soul of the uni- the upper region of the air. The tyrants, who would verse. Such was the ridiculous jargon which the have disgraced the society of gods and men, are thrown "wise" and "philosophic" Julian preferred to the rev-headlong, by the inexorable Nemesis, into the Tartaelations of Christianity! According to the account of Libanius, Julian employed only a single night in the composition of each of these two discourses: both were written A.D. 362; the second at Pessinus in Phrygia, whither Julian had gone to re-establish the worship of Cybele.-6. Eis rous raidεúrovę Kúvaç, Against the ignorant Cynics."-7. Пpòç 'Нpáкλεiον κυνικὸν, περὶ τοῦ πῶς κυνιστέον, καὶ εἰ πρέπει τῷ KvVì μúðοvý TháTTE, “Unto the Cynic Heraclius; how one ought to be a Cynic, and whether it is becoming in a Cynic to compose fables." In these two dis-ter, Julian avenges himself on the people of Antioch, courses or memoirs Julian defines the idea which, ac- who had amused themselves with the philosophic coscording to him, ought to be entertained of the philos- tume which he affected. He draws, in a pleasant manophy of Diogenes. He blames the false cynics of his ner, his own portrait, describing his own figure, his time for openly divulging things of a sacred nature. beard, and his unpolished manners; and while he The second discourse contains some very curious ma- makes an ironical confession of his own faults, he interials for history. Under pretence of showing to dulges in a severe satire on the licentious and effemHeraclius how one may introduce a fable into a dis-inate manners of Antioch. The work betrays marks course of a serious nature, the writer has inserted an of the precipitation with which it was composed; for allegorical narrative, which is, in fact, the history of it is full of repetitions.-We have also ninety letters Constantine, of his sons, and his nephew.-8. 'Exì Ty of Julian: these are not treatises of a philosophical or ἐξόδῳ τοῦ ἀγαθωτάτου Σαλλουστίου παραμυθητικός, | "Consolation on the departure of the excellent Sallustius." This prefect of Gaul, the friend and adviser of

rean abyss. The rest of the Cæsars advance to their seats, and, as they pass, they undergo the scrutiny and remarks of Silenus. A controversy arises about the first place, which all the gods adjudge to Marcus Aurelius. This recital affords Julian an opportunity of painting the character of his uncle, the Emperor Constantine, whom he represents as an effeminate man and a debauchee.—13. Αντιοχικὸς, ἢ Μισοπώγων, "The inhabitant of Antioch, or the Beard-hater." In this satire, filled with pleasantries of a forced charac

moral nature, to which the epistolary form has been given; they are genuine letters, written in the course of correspondence with others; though occasionally

JULII or JULIA GENS, a celebrated Roman family, which pretended to trace its origin to the mythic Iulus, son of Æneas. Its principal branch was that of the Libos, which, about the close of the fifth century of Rome, took the name of Cæsar. (Vid. Cæsar.)

JULIOMAGUS, a city of Gaul, the capital of the Andecavi, situate on a tributary of the Liger or Loire, near its junction with that river, and to the northeast of Namnetes or Nantz. It was afterward called Andecavi, from the name of the people, and is now Angers. (Vid. Andecavi.)

the Didian law about expenditure by severer penat ties.-IV. Norbana, by L. Junius Norbanus, the consul, A.U.C. 771, that slaves who had been manumitted in any of the less solemn ways should not obtain the full rights of Roman citizens, but only those of the Latins who were transplanted into colonies. (Plin., Ep., 10, 105.)

a rescript or decision given by Julian as sovereign is found among them. These letters are interesting from the light which they shed on the character of the prince, and on some of the events of the day. The 43d is an ordinance by which public instruction is forbidden to the Christians. Among the correspondents of Julian, they to whom the greater number of letters is addressed are the sophist Libanius, and the New-Platonist JUNO, a Roman divinity, identical with the Grecian Iamblichus, for whom Julian professed a great venera- Hera, and to be considered, therefore, in one and the tion. The best edition of the Casars of Julian is that same article with the latter. In Homer, this goddess of Heusinger, Gotha, 1736, 8vo. It contains the text is one of the children of Saturn and Rhea, and the sis corrected by MSS., a Latin and a French translation, ter and wife of Jupiter. When the latter placed his and a selection of notes from previous commentators. sire in Tartarus, Rhea committed Juno to the care of The edition of Harless, Erlang., 1785, 8vo, is also Oceanus and Tethys, by whom she was nurtured in held in estimation. The best edition of the entire their grotto-palace. (Il., 14, 202, seq.) Hesiod, who works is that of Spanheim, Lips., 1696, fol. None of gives her the same parents, says that she was the last the editions of the works of Julian contain, however, spouse of Jove. (Theog., 921.) According to the all his letters. To those in the edition of Spanheim, Argive legend, Jupiter effected his union with Juno by we must add the letters given by Muratori, in his An- assuming first the form of a cuckoo. (Schol. ad Theecdota Græca, Patavii, 1709, 4to. Fabricius inserted ocr., 15, 64.-Pausan., 2, 17.) In the Iliad (for she these in his Bibliotheca Græca, vol. 7, p. 84 (vol. 6, does not appear in the Odyssey), Juno, as the queen p. 734 of the new edition). This scholar also made of Jupiter, shares in his honours. The god is repreknown eleven other letters, in his Lux salutaris Evan-sented as a little in awe of her tongue, yet daunting gelii, Hamb., 1731. These form altogether a collec- her by his menaces. On one occasion he reminds her, tion of seventeen epistles, which may be found in the how once, when she had raised a storm, which drove third volume of the works of Julian, translated by his son Hercules out of his course at sea, he tied her Tourlet, Paris, 1821, 8vo. (Schöll, Hist. Lat. Gr., hands together, and suspended her with anvils at her vol. 6, p. 188, seqq.) feet between heaven and earth (1., 15, 18, seqq.); and when her son Vulcan would aid her, he flung him down from Olympus. (Il., 1, 590, seqq.-Compare Il., 15, 22.) In this poem the goddess appears dwelling in peace and harmony with Latona, Dione, Themis, and their children later poets speak much, however, of the persecution which Latona underwent from the enmity of Juno, who also visited with severe inflictions Io, Semele, Alcmena, and other favourites of Jove. The children of Jupiter and Juno were Mars, Hebe, and the Ilithyia, to whom some add the Graces. (Coluth., Rapt. Hel., 88, 173.) Vulcan was the progeny of Juno without a sire; she was also said by some to have given origin to the monster Typhon. (Hom., Hymn., 2, 127, seqq.) In the mythic cycles of Bacchus and Hercules, Juno acts a prominent part as the persecutor of those heroes, on account of their being the offspring of Jupiter by mortal mothers. In like manner, as the goddess of Argos, she is active in the cause of the Achæi in the war of Troy. In the Argonautic cycle she is the protecting deity of the adventurous Jason. There is, in fact, no one of the Olympian deities more decidedly Grecian in feeling and character than Juno.-The chief seats of her worship were Argos, Samos, and Platea. She was also honoured at Sparta, Corinth, Corcyra, and other places. The victims offered to her were kine, ewe-lambs, and sows. The willow, the pomegranate, the dittany, the lily, were her sacred plants. Among birds, the cuckoo, and afterward the peacock, were appropriated to the Olympian queen. (Vid. Argus, and consult remarks under the article Io.) The peacock is an Indian bird, and, according to Theophrastus, was introduced into Greece from the East. Its Persian name at the present day is. Taous. (Compare the Greek ra@c) Peafowl were first introduced into Samos; and being birds that gave indications, by their cry, of a change of weather, they were consecrated to Juno, and the legend was gradually spread, that Samos was their native place. The marriage of Jupiter and Juno was viewed as the pattern of those of mankind, and the goddess was held to preside over the nuptial league. Hence she was surnamed the Yoker (Zvyía), the Consecrator (Tɛheia), the Marriage-Goddess (Taunhia.-Pronuba.)-Juno was represented by Polycletus as seated on a throne, holding in one hand a pomegranate, the emblem of fecundity, in the other a sceptre, with a cuckoo on its top. Her air is dignified and matronly, her forehead broad, her eyes large, and

JULIOPOLIS, a city of Galatia. (Vid. Gordium.) IULIS, the chief town of the island of Ceos, situate on a hill about 25 stadia from the sea, and which is probably represented by the modern Zea, which gives its name to the island. (Note to the French Strabo, vol. 4. p. 164, from a MS. tour of Villoison.) It was the birthplace of two of the greatest lyric poets of Greece, Simonides and his nephew Bacchylides; also of Erasistratus the physician, and Ariston the Peripatetic philosopher. (Strabo, 486.) It is said that the laws of this town decreed that every man, on reaching his sixtieth year, should destroy himself by poison, in order to leave to others a sufficient maintenance. This ordinance is said to have been first promulgated when the town was besieged by the Athenians. (Strabo, l. c.-Heracl., Pont. Polit. fragm., 9.-Elian., V. H., 3, 37.-Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 3, p. 402.)

JULIUS, I. Cæsar. (Vid. Cæsar.)-II. Agricola, a governor of Britain. (Vid. Agricola.)-III. Obsequens. (Vid. Obsequens.)-IV. Solinus, a writer. (Vid. Solinus.)—V. Titianus, a writer. (Vid. Titianus.)-VI. Africanus, a chronologer. (Vid. Africanus I.)—VII. Pollux, a grammarian of Naucratis, in Egypt. (Vid. Pollux.)

IULUS, I. the name of Ascanius, the son of Eneas. (Vid. Ascanius.)-II. A son of Ascanius, born in Lavinium. In the succession to the kingdom of Alba, Eneas Sylvius, the son of Eneas and Lavinia, was preferred to him. He was, however, made chief priest. (Dion. Hal., 1, 70.)-III. A son of Antony the triumvir, and Fulvia. (Vid. Antonius VII.)

JUNIA LEX, I. a law proposed by M. Junius Pennus, a tribune, and passed A.U.C. 627, about expelling foreigners from the city-II. Another, by M. Junius Silanus, the consul, A.U.C. 644, about diminishing the number of campaigns which soldiers should serve.-III. Licinia, or Junia et Licinia, enforcing

her arms finely formed. She is attired in a tunic and | ship. (For his warfare with the Titans and Giants, mantle. The term "Hpa is evidently the feminine of Hpwg, anciently "Hpoc, and thus they answer to each other as the Latin Herus and Hera, and the German Herr and Herrin, and therefore signified master and mistress. The name JUNO, on the other hand, is evidently derived from the Greek AIQNH, the female AIE or ZEYE.-The quarrels of Jupiter and Juno in the Homeric mythology are evidently mere physical allegories, Jupiter denoting the æther or upper regions of air, and Juno the lower strata, or our atmosphere. Hence the discord and strife that so often prevail between the king and queen of Olympus, the master and mistress of the universe, are merely so many types of the storms that disturb our atmosphere, and the evervarying changes that characterize the latter are plainly indicated by the capricious and quick-changing temper of the spouse of Jove. At a later period, how--Vid. Rhea, and Saturnus.) According to another ever, a new element appears to have entered into the mythology of Juno. The Earth, as the recipient of fertilizing showers from the atmosphere, became in a manner identified with the spouse of Father Ether; and we find Juno, now resembling in many of her attributes both Cybele and Cercs, appearing at one time as Earth, at another as the passive productive princi-reared, but the tomb which contained his remains, was ple. Hence the consecration of the cow to Juno, just as, in the religion of the ancient Germans, the cow was assigned to the service of the goddess Hertha or Earth. At Argos, the chariot in which the priestess of Juno rode was drawn by oxen. (Herod., 1, 31.) Cows were also sacred to the Egyptian Isis, the goddess of fertility, and who resembles in some of her attributes the Grecian Ceres. (Knight, Enquiry into the Symb. Lang., &c., ◊ 36.-Classical Journ., vol. 23, p. 227.-Keightley's Mythology, p. 96, seqq.-Constant, de la Religion, vol. 1, p. 198.) JUNONIA, one of the Canary islands, or Insulæ Fortunatæ. It is now Palma. (Plin., 6, 32.)

vid. Titanes and Gigantes.)-Though Homer names the parents of nearly all the gods who appear in his poems, and it follows thence that they must have been born in some definite places, he never indicates any spot of earth as the natal place of any of his deities. A very ancient tradition, however (for it occurs in Hesiod), made the isle of Crete the birthplace of the monarch of Olympus. According to this tradition, Rhea, when about to be delivered of Jupiter, retired to a cavern near Lyctus or Cnosus in Crete. She there brought forth her babe, whom the Melian nymphs received in their arms. Adrastea rocked him in a golden cradle; he was fed with honey and the milk of the goat Amalthea, while the Curetes danced about him, clashing their arms, to prevent his cries from reaching the ears of Saturn. (Callim., Hymn. in Jov. account, the infant deity was fed on ambrosia, brought by pigeons from the streams of Ocean, and on nectar, which an eagle drew each day with his beak from a rock. (Athenæus, 11, p. 490.) This legend was gradually pragmatized; Jupiter became a mortal king of Crete; and not merely the cave in which he was shown by the "lying Cretans." (Κρῆτες ἀεὶ ψεῦσται. Callim, H. in Jov., v. 8.-Compare St. Paul, Ep. ad Tit., 1, 12.)—The Arcadians, on the other hand, asserted that Jupiter first saw the light among their mountains, and made Rhea to have brought him forth amid the thickets of Parrhasion. All, therefore, that we can collect with safety from these accounts is, that the worship of the Dictaan Jupiter in Crete, and of the Lycæan Jupiter in Arcadia (for he was reared, said the Arcadians, in a cavern of Mount Lycæus), was of the most remote antiquity, and that thence, when the Euhemeristic principle began to creep in among the Greeks, each people supposed the deity to have been born among themselves. The Cretan legend must, however, be regarded as the most ancient, for the Arcadians evidently attempted to transfer the JUPITER, the supreme Roman deity, identical with names of places in it to their own country.-In the the Grecian Zeus (Zeus).-Jupiter was the eldest son Theogony, the celestial progeny of Jove are enumeraof Saturn and Rhea. He and his brothers, Neptune ted in the following order. (Theog., 886, seq.) Juand Pluto, divided the world by lot between them, piter first espoused Metis (Prudence), who exceeded and the portion which fell to him was the "extensive gods and men in knowledge. But Heaven and Earth heaven in air and clouds." (Il., 13, 355.) All the having told him that her first child, a maid, would aerial phenomena, such as thunder and lightning, wind, equal him in strength and counsel, and her second, a clouds, snow, and rainbows, are therefore ascribed to son, would be king of gods and men, he cajoled her him, and he sends them either as signs and warnings, when she was pregnant, and swallowed her; and, after or to punish the transgressions of man, especially the a time, the goddess Minerva sprang from his head. perversions of law and justice, of which he is the He then married Themis, who bore him the Seasons fountain. (I, 1. 238, seqq.) Jupiter is called the and Fates. The ocean-nymph Eurynome next pro"father of men and gods;" his power over both is duced him the Graces. Ceres then became by him represented as supreme, and his will is fate. Earthly the mother of Proserpina; Mnemosyne of the Muses; monarchs obtain their authority from him (Il., 2, 197, and Latona of Apollo and Diana. His last spouse 205); they are but his vicegerents, and are distin- was Juno, who bore him Mars, Hebe, and Ilithyia.guished by epithets derived from his name; such as According to Homer (Il., 5, 370, seq.), Venus was Jove-sprung (Atoyevns), Jove-reared (Atorpeons), Jove- the daughter of Jupiter and Dione. The Theogony beloved (Aióginos). In his palace on Olympus, Jove farther says, that Maia, the daughter of Atlas, bore lives like a Grecian prince in the midst of his family: him Herines (Theog., 938). A later fable stated altercations and quarrels occur between him and his that Asteria, the sister of Latona, flying the love of queen, Juno; and though, in general, kind and affec- Jupiter, flung herself from heaven down to the sea, tionate to his children, he occasionally menaces or and became the island afterward known by the name treats them with rigour.-In the Odyssey, the char- of Delos.-Mortal women also bore a numerous proacter of this god is, agreeably to the more moral geny to the monarch of the sky, and every species of tone of that poem, of a higher and more dignified or- transmutation and disguise was employed by him to der. No indecent altercations occur; both gods and further his views. (Vid. Alcmena, Antiope, Callisto, men submit to his power without a murmur, yet he Danaë, Europa, Leda, &c.) The various fables of is anxious to show the equity of his decrees and which the monarch of the gods thus became the subto justify his ways." (Od., 1, 32.)-The Theog-ject, and which, while they derogate from his characony of Hesiod represents Jupiter as the last-born ter of sovereign deity, have little, if anything, to recoinchild of Saturn and Rhea, and, according to it, the supreme power was freely conferred on him by his brothers, and he thus became the acknowledged head of the Olympian gods, the objects of Grecian wor

JUNONIS PROMONTORIUM, a promontory of Spain, on the Atlantic side of the Straits of Gibraltar. It is now Cape Trafalgar. (Mela, 2, 6.)

mend them on the score of moral purity, lose all their grossness if we regard them merely as so many allegories, which typify the great generative power of the universe displaying itself in a variety of ways, and un