been styled Gallia Provincia, was distinguished by the name of Narbonensis, from the city of Narbo or Narbonne. This province was anciently called also Gallia Braccata, from the bracce or under-garments worn by the inhabitants; while Gallia Celtica was styled Comata, from the long hair worn by the natives. These four great provinces, in later ages, were called the four Gauls, and subdivided into 17 others. GALLIA. with flint or shells; clubs; spears hardened in the fire, and named gaïs (in Latin gæsum, in Greek yaiσóv and yacoós); and others called cateies, which they hurled all on fire against the enemy. (In Gaelic, gathteth, pronounced ga-tè, signifies "a fiery dart.") Foreign traffic, however, made them acquainted, in process of time, with arms of iron, as well as with the art of manufacturing them for themselves from the 1. General remarks on the Gallic race. copper and iron of their own mines. Among the arms As far back as we can penetrate into the history of mentioned the long sabre of iron or copper, and a pike of metal which thenceforward came into use, may be the West, we find the race of the Gauls occupying that resembling our halberds, the wound inflicted by which part of the continent comprehended between the Rhine, was considered mortal. For a long time the Transalthe Alps, the Mediterranean, the Pyrenees, and the pine, as well as the Cisalpine, warriors of the Gallic Ocean, as well as the two great islands situate to the race had rejected the use of defensive armour as innorthwest, opposite the mouths of the Rhine and consistent with true courage; and, for a long period, Seine. Of these two islands, the one nearer the continent was called Alb-in, "White Island." (Alb sig- strip off their vestments, and engage naked with the an absurd point of honour had induced them even to nifies "high" and "white :" inn, contracted from innis, foe. This prejudice, however, the fruit of an ostenmeans “island.”—Compare the remark of Pliny, 14, tatious feeling natural to the race, was almost entirely 16, "Albion insula, sic dicta ab albis rupibus quas effaced in the second century. The numerous relamare alluit.") The other island bore the name of tions formed between the Gauls and the Massiliots, Er-in, "Isle of the West" (from Eir or Iar, "the Italians, and Carthaginians, had at first spread a taste west"). The continental territory received the spe- for armour, as a personal decoration, among the Gallic cial appellation of Galltachd, "Land of the Galls." tribes; in a short time the conviction of its utility was The term Gaeltachd, or, more correctly, Gaidheal- superadded; and the military costume of Rome and tachd, is still applied to the highlands of Scotland. Greece, adopted on the banks of the Loire, the Rhone, From this word the Greeks formed Taharia (Galatia), and the Saône, formed a singular combination with and from this latter the generic name of Taháral. the ancient array of the Gaul. To a helmet of metal, The Romans proceeded by an inverse method, and of greater or less value according to the fortune of the from the generic term Galli deduced the geographical warrior, were attached the horns of an elk, buffalo, or denomination Gallia. The population of Gaul was stag; while for the rich there was a headpiece repredivided into families or tribes, forming among them-senting some bird or savage beast; the whole being selves many distinct communities or nations. nations generally assumed names deduced from some warrior a gigantic appearance. (Diod. Sic., 5, 28) These surmounted by a bunch of plumes, which gave to the feature of the country in which they dwelt, or from Similar figures were attached to their bucklers, which some peculiarity in their social state. united together, in their turn, and formed confedera-est colours. These representations served as devices Oftentimes they were long, quadrangular, and painted with the brighttions or leagues. Such were the confederations of for the warriors; they were emblems by means of the Celta, dui, Armorici, Arverni, &c.-The Gaul was robust and of tall stature. His complexion was fair, his eyes blue, his hair of a blond or chestnut colour, to which he endeavoured to give a red or flaming hue by certain applications. (Plin., 28, 12.-Martial, 8, 33.) The hair itself was worn long, at one time floating on the shoulders, at another gathered up and confined on the top of the head. (Diod. Sic., 5, 28.) The beard was allowed to grow by the people at large; the nobles, on the other hand, removed it from the face, excepting the upper lip, where they wore thick mustaches. (Diod. Sic., 1. c.) The attire common to all the tribes consisted of pantaloons or bracca (braca, bracca, braga; brykan in Cymraig; bragu in Armoric). These were of striped materials. (In Celtic breac means "a stripe.") They wore also a short cloak, having sleeves, likewise formed of striped materials, and descending to the middle of the thigh. (Strabo, 196.) Over this was thrown a short cloak or sagum (sae, Armoric.-Compare Isidor., Origin., 19, 24), striped like the shirt, or else adorned with flowers and other ornamental work, and, among the rich, superbly embroidered with silver and gold. (Virg., En, 8, 660.-Sil. Ital., 4, 152.-Diod. Sic., 5, 28.) It covered the back and shoulders, and was secured under the chin by a clasp of metal. The lower classes, however, wore in place of it the skin of some animal, or else a thick and coarse woollen covering, called, in the Gallo-Kimric dialects, linn or lenn. (In Armoric ten means "a covering;" and in Gaelic lein signifies "a soldier's cloak."-Compare the Latin lana and the Greek haiva and yλaiva.)—The Gauls possessed a strong taste for personal decoration: it was customary with the rich and powerful to adorn themselves with a profusion of collars, bracelets, and rings of gold. (Strabo, 196.)-The offensive arms of the nation were, at first, hatchets and knives of stone; arrows pointed which each one sought to characterize himself or strike terror into the foe. (Compare Vegetius, 2, 18.-Sil. Ital., 4, 148.)-A buckler and casque after this model; a cuirass of wrought metal, after the Greek and Ro man fashion, or a coat of mail formed of iron rings, after the manner of Gaul (Varro, L. L., 4, 20); an enormous sabre hanging on the right thigh, and suspended by chains of iron or brass from a belt glittering with gold and silver, and adorned with coral; a collar, bracelets, rings of gold around the arm and on the middle finger (Plin., 33, 1); pantaloons; a sagum hanging from the shoulders; in fine, long red mustaches; such were the martial equipments and such the appearance of an Arvernian, Æduan, or Biturigan noble.-Hardy, daring, impetuous, born, as it were, for martial enterprises, the Gallic race possessed, at the same time, an ingenious and active turn of mind. They were not slow in equalling their Phoenician and Grecian instructers in the art of mining. The same superiority to which the Spaniards had attained in tempering steel, the Gauls acquired in the preparation of brass. Antiquity assigns to them the honour of various useful inventions, which had hitherto escaped the earlier civilization of the East and of Italy. The process of tinning was discovered by the Bituriges; that of veneering by the Edui. (Plin., 34, 17.) dyes, too, of Gaul were not without reputation. (Plin., 8, 48.) In agriculture, the wheel-plough and boulter were Gallic discoveries. (Plin., 18, 18.- Id. ibid., 18, 11.) With the Gauls, too, originated the employment of marl for enriching the soil. (Plin., 18, 6, seqq.) The cheeses of Mount Lozere, among the Gabali; those of Nemausus; and two kinds made among the Alps, became, in time, much sought after by the inhabitants of Italy (Plin.. 11, 49); although the Italians generally ascribed to the Gallic cheeses a savour of too acid a nature and somewhat medicinal. (Plin, The 1. c.) The Gauls also prepared various kinds of fer- intemperate persons, and were, besides, punished with mented drinks; such as barley-beer, called cerevisia a heavy fine. (Strabo, 196.)-In preparing for for(Plin., 22, 15.—In old French, Cervoise; in Cym-eign expeditions, a chieftain of acknowledged valour raig, Curv.); and likewise another kind of beer, made generally formed a small army around him, consisting, from corn, and in which honey, cumin, and other in- for the most part, of adventurers and volunteers who gredients were mingled. (Posidon., ap Athen., 4, 13.) had flocked to his standard: these were to share with The froth of beer was employed as a means for leav-him whatever booty might be obtained. In interual ening bread: it was used also as a cosmetic, and the wars, however, or defensive ones of any importance, Gallic females frequently applied it to the visage, un- levies of men were forcibly made; and severe punder the belief that it imparted a freshness to the com-ishments were inflicted on the refractory, such as the plexion. (Plin., 22, 25.) As regarded wine, it was loss of noses, ears, an eye, or some one of the limbs. to foreign traders that the Gauls and Ligurians were (Cas., B. G., 7, 4.) If any dangerous conjuncture indebted for its use; and it was from the Greeks of occurred; if the honour or safety of the state were Massilia that they learned the process of making it, as about to be compromised, then the supreme chief conwell as the culture of the vine.-The dwellings of the vened an armed counsel (Cæs., B. G., 5, 66). This Gauls, spacious and of a round form, were construct- was the proclamation of alarm. All persons able to ed of posts and hurdles, and covered with clay both bear arms, from the youth to him advanced in years, within and without; a large roof, composed of oak- were compelled to assemble at the place and day indishingles and stubble, or of straw cut and kneaded with cated, for the purpose of deliberating on the situation clay, covered the whole. (Strabo, 196.-Vitruv., 1, 1.) of the country, of electing a chief, and of discussing -Gaul contained both open villages and cities: the the plan of the campaign. It was expressly provided latter, surrounded by walls, were defended by a system by law, that the individual who came last to the place of of fortification, of which we find no example elsewhere. rendezvous should be cruelly tortured in the presence Cæsar gives the following description of these ram- of the assembled multitude. (Cæs., B. G., 5, 66.) parts (B. G., 7, 23). "Straight beams, placed length- This form of convocation was of rare occurrence; it wise at equal intervals, and two feet distant from each was only resorted to in the last extremity, and more other, are laid along the ground. These are mortised frequently in the democratic cities than in those where together on the inside, and covered deep with earth; but the aristocracy had the preponderance. Neither inthe intervals are stopped in front with large stones. firmities nor age freed the Gallic noble from the necesThese being fixed and cemented together, another sity of accepting or sueing for military commands. range is put over, the same distance being preserved, Oftentimes were seen, at the head of the forces, and the beams not touching each other, but intermit- chieftains hoary and almost enfeebled by age, who ting at equal spaces, and each bound close together could even scarcely retain their seats on the steed by a single row of stones. In this manner the whole which supported them. (Hirt., B. G., 8, 12.) This work is intermixed till the wall is raised to its full people would have believed that they dishonoured height. By this means the work, from its appearance their aged warriors by making them die elsewhere and variety, is not displeasing to the eye: the beams than on the field of battle.-To the fierce vivacity of and stones being placed alternate, and keeping their the attack and to the violence of the first shock, were own places in exact right lines: and besides, it is of reduced nearly all the military tactics of the Gauls, great advantage in the defence of cities; for it is seon level ground and in pitched battle. In the mountcured by the stone from fire, and from the battering- ainous regions, on the other hand, and especially in ram by the wood, which, consisting of entire beams, the vast and thick forests of the north, war had a close forty feet long, for the most part mortised on the in- resemblance to the chase: it was prosecuted in small side, could neither be forced in nor torn asunder."- parties, by ambuscades and all sorts of stratagems; Such would seem to have been the fortifications of the and dogs, trained up to pursue men, tracked out, and cities in the civilized and populous part of Gaul. To aided in conquering the foe. These dogs, equally the north and east, among the more savage tribes, serviceable for the chase and for war, were obtained there were no cities properly so called; the inhabi- from Belgic Gaul and from Britain. ́ (Strabo, 196. tants resided for the most part in large enclosures, Sil. Ital., 10, 77.-Ovid, Met., 1, 533.-Martial, formed of trunks of trees, and calculated to repel by these rude intrenchments the assaults of a disciplined as well as undisciplined foe.-Besides his habitation in the city, the rich Gaul generally possessed another in the country, amid thick forests and on the banks of some river. (Cæs., B. G., 6, 30.) Here, during the heat of summer, he reposed from the fatigues of war; but he brought along with him, at the same time, all his equipments and retinue, his arms, his horses, his esquires. In the midst of the storms of faction and the civil dissensions, which marked the history of Gaul in the first and second centuries, these precautions were anything else but superfluous. 3, 47.) A Gallic army generally carried along with it a multitude of chariots for the baggage, which embarrassed its march. (Hirt., B. G., 8, 14.—Cæs., B. G., 1, 51.) Each warrior bore a bundle of straw, put up like a sack, on which he was accustomed to sit in the encampment, or even in the line of battle while waiting the signal to engage. (Hirt., B. G., 8, 15.)-The Gauls, like other nations, for a long period were in the habit of killing their prisoners of war, either by crucifixion, or by tying them to trees as a mark for their weapons, or by consigning them to the flames amid horrid rites. Long prior, however, to the second century of our era, these barbarous practices were laid aside, and the captives of transalpine nations 2. General habits of the Gallic race. had nothing to fear but servitude. Another custom, not It was, as we have already remarked, in war, and less savage, that of cutting off the heads of their slain in the arts applicable to war, that the genius of the enemies on the field of battle, was not slower in disapGauls displayed itself to most advantage. This peo-pearing. It was long a settled rule in all wars, that the ple made war a regular profession, while the management of arms became their favourite employment. To have a fine martial mien, to retain for a long period strength and agility of body, was not only a point of honour for individuals, but a duty to the state. At regular intervals, the young men went to measure their size by a girdle deposited with the chief of the village, and those whose corpulence exceeded the official standard were severely reprimanded as idle and victorious army should possess itself of such trophies as these; the common soldiers fixed them on the points of their spears, the horsemen wore them suspended by the hair from the poitrels of their steeds; and in this way the conquerors returned to their homes, making the air resound with their triumphal acclamations. (Straho, 197.) Each one then hastened to nail up these hideous testimonials of his valour to the gate of his dwelling; and, as the same thing was done with the trophies of the chase, a Gallic village | arms and defy each other to the combat. At first it bore no faint resemblance to a large charnel-house. Carefully embalmed, and saturated with oil of cedar, the heads of hostile chieftains and of famous war riors were deposited in large coffers, and arranged by their possessor according to the date of acquisition. (Strabo, 198.) This was the book, in which the young Gallic warrior loved to study the exploits of his forefathers; and each generation, as it passed onward, strove to add to the contents. To part, for money, with the head of a foe, acquired either by one's own exertions or those of his ancestors, was regarded as the height of baseness, and would have fixed a lasting stain on him who should have been guilty of the deed. Many even boasted of having refused, when offered by the relations or countrymen of the deceased, an equal weight of gold for a head thus obtained. (Diod. Sic, 5, 29.) Sometimes the scull, cleansed and set in gold or silver, served as a cup in the temples, or circulated in the festivities of the banquet, and the guests drank out of it to the glory of the victor and the triumphs of their country. These fierce and brutal manners prevailed for a long period over the whole of Gaul. Civilization, in its onward march, abolished them by degrees, until, at the commencement of the second century, they were confined to the savage tribes of the North and West. It was there that Posidonius found them still existing in all their vigour. The sight of so many human heads, disfigured by outrages, and blackened by the air and the rain, at first excited in his bosom the mingled emotions of horror and disgust: "however," adds the stoic traveller, with great naïveté, "my eyes became gradually accustomed to the view." (Strabo, 198.)-yokes for mules, and even sometimes entire chariots The Gauls affected, as more manly in its character, a strong and rough tone of voice (Diod. Sic., 5, 31), to which, moreover, their harsh and guttural idioms greatly contributed. They conversed but little, and by means of short and concise phrases, which the constant use of metaphors and hyperboles rendered obscure and almost unintelligible to strangers. (Diod. Sic., I. c.) But, when once animated by dispute, or incited by something that was calculated to interest or arouse, at the head of armies or in political assem blies, they expressed themselves with surprising copiousness and fluency, and the habit in which they indulged, of employing figurative language, furnished them, on such occasions, with a thousand lively and picturesque images, either for exalting their own merit or putting down an opponent.-The Gauls, in general, were accused of drinking to excess; a habit which took its rise both in the grossness of their manners and in the wants of a cold and humid climate. The Massilian and Italian traders were not slow in furnishing the necessary aliment for the indulgence of this baneful vice. Cargoes of wine found their way, by means of the navigable rivers, into the very heart of the country. The tempting beverage was also conveved over land in wagons (Diod. Sic., 5, 26), and in various quarters regular establishments were opened for vending the article. To these places the Gauls flocked from every part, and gave, in exchange for the wines of the south, their metals, peltries, grain, cattle, and slaves. So lucrative was this traffic to the vender, that oftentimes a young slave could be procured for a jar of the inebriating liquor. (Diod. Sic, 5, 26.) About the first century, however, of our era, this vice began gradually to disappear from among the higher classes, and to be confined to the lower orders, at least with the nations of the south and east.-Milk and the flesh of animals, especially that of swine, formed the principal aliment of the Gauls. A curious account of their repasts, traced by one who had often sat with them at table, is given by Posidonius (Ap. Athen., 4, 13). After an excessive indulgence in the pleasures of the banquet, they loved to seize their was a mere sportive encounter; but, if either party chanced to be wounded, passion got so far the better of them, that, unless separated by their friends, they continued to engage till one or the other of them was slain. So far, indeed, did they carry their contempt of death and their ostentatious display of courage, that they might be seen agreeing, for a certain sum of money or for so many measures of wine, to let themselves be slain by others; mounted on some elevated place, they distributed the liquor or gold among their most intimate friends, and then reclining on their bucklers, presented their throats to the steel. (Posidonius, ap. Athen, 4, 13.) Others made it a point of honour not to retire from their dwellings when falling in upon them, nor from the flames, nor from the tides of ocean and the inundations of rivers; and it is to these foolish bravadoes that the Gauls owed their fabulous renown of being an impious race, who lived in open war with nature, who drew the sword against the waves, and discharged the arrow at the tempest.-The working of mines, and certain monopolies enjoyed by the heads of tribes, had placed in the hands of some individuals enormous capitals; hence the reputation for opulence which Gaul enjoyed at the period of the Roman invasion, and even still later. It was the Peru of the ancient world. The riches of Gaul even passed into a proverb. (Cic., Phil., 12.-Josephus, 2, 28.-Plut., Vit. Cæs.-Suet., Cas., &c.) The sight of the various articles in use among the people at large, both plated and tinned, whether for domestic use or for war, such as utensils for cooking, arms, harness for horses, (Florus, 3. 2), could not fail to inspire the first travellers into this country with an exaggerated idea of its wealth, and contributed, no doubt, to spread a romantic colouring over the accounts that were given of it. To this was added the lavish prodigality of the Gallic chieftains, who freely spent the resources of their families, and also those of their dependants, for the purpose of attaining to office or securing the favour of the multitude. Posidonius makes mention of a certain Luern or Luer (Aovépvioç, Posidon., ap. Athen., 4, 13-Aovépios, Strabo, 191), king of the Arverni, who caused a shower of gold and silver to descend upon the crowd as often as he appeared in public. He also gave entertainments in a rude style of barbarian magnificence; a large space of ground was enclosed for the purpose, and cisterns were dug in it, which were filled with wine, mead, and beer. (Posidon., l. c.)-Properly speaking, there was no domestic union or family intercourse among the Gallic nations; the females were held in that dependance and servitude which denotes a very imperfect condition of the social state. The husband. had the power of life and death over his wife as well as over his offspring. When a person of high rank suddenly died, and the cause of his decease was not clearly ascertained, his wife or wives (for polygamy was practised among the rich) were seized and put to the torture; if the least suspicion was excited of their having been privy to his death, the unfortunate victims perished in the midst of the flames, after the most frightful punishments. (Cæs., B. G., 6, 19.) A custom, however, which prevailed in this country about the commencement of our era, shows that even then the condition of females had undergone some degree of melioration: this was the community of goods between husband and wife. Whatever sum the husband received with his wife as a dowry, the same amount he added to it from his own resources; a common stock was thus formed, the interest or profits resulting from which were preserved, and the whole fell to the lot of the surviver. The children remained under the care of their mother until the age of puberty; a father would have blushed to allow his son to appear publicly in his presence, before the latter could wield a sabre | practised in Samothrace, in Asia, and in India, we find and make a figure on the list of warriors. (Cæs., B. G., 6, 18.)-Among some nations of Belgic Gaul, where the Rhine was an object of superstitious adoration, a whimsical custom prevailed; the river was made the means of testing the fidelity of the conjugal state. When a husband had doubts respecting his paternity, he took the new-born infant, placed it on a board, and exposed it to the current of the stream. If the plank and its helpless burden floated safely upon the waters, the result was deemed favourable, and all the father's suspicions were dissipated. If, on the contrary, the plank began to sink, the infant perished, and the parent's suspicions were confirmed. (Julian, Epist., 15, ad Maxim. philos.-Id., Orat., 2, in Constant. imp.-Anthol. Gr., 1, 43, 1.) no light thrown upon this subject by history. Neither the facts collected by foreign writers, nor any national traditions, furnish us with a positive solution of the difficulty. It may be reasonably conjectured, however, that the Cymri, during their long sojourn either in Asia or on the borders of Asia and Europe, were initiated into religious ideas and institutions, which, circulating at that time from one people to another, eventually spread themselves over all the eastern quarter of the world. Druidism, introduced into Gaul by con quest, organized itself in the domains of the conquerors with greater energy than it had ever done elsewhere; and after it had converted to its dogmas the whole Gallic population, and probably a portion of the Ligures, it continued to have, in the midst of the Cymri, in Armorica, and in Britain, its most powerful colleges 3. Civil and Religious Institutions of the Gauls. of priests and its most secret mysteries. The empire Two privileged orders ruled in Gaul over the rest of of Druidism, however, did not completely stifle that the population: the priests and nobles. The people religion of nature which prevailed before its introducat large were divided into two classes, the inhabitants tion in Britain and Gaul. Every wise and mysterious of the country and the residents of cities. The former system of religion tolerates a fetichism more or less of these constituted the tribes or clients appertaining gross in its character, and calculated to take hold of to noble families. The client cultivated his patron's and keep alive the superstition of the multitude; and domains, followed his standard in war, and was bound this fetichism it seeks to hold always stationary. Stato defend him with his life. To abandon his patron in tionary it therefore remained in the island of Britain. the hour of peril was regarded as the blackest of crimes. In Gaul, therefore, in the eastern and southern sections The residents of cities, on the other hand, found them- of the country, where Druidism had not been imposed selves beyond the control of this system of clientship, by arms, although it had become the ruling religion, and, consequently, enjoyed greater freedom. Below the early national form of worship preserved more the mass of the people were the slaves, who do not independence, even under the ministry of the Druids appear, however, to have been at any time very nu- who had constituted themselves its priests. It conmerous. The two privileged orders of which we have tinued, then, to be here cultivated, and, following the just made mention, imposed each in its turn a heavy progressive march of civilization and intelligence, it yoke of despotism upon Gaul; and the government of gradually elevated itself from the rudeness of mere this country may be divided into three distinct forms, fetichism to religious conceptions which became more prevailing at three distinct intervals of time; that of and more elevated in character. Thus the immediate the priests, or a theocracy; that of the chieftains of adoration of brute matter, of natural agents and phetribes, or a military aristocracy; and that, finally, of nomena, such as stones, trees (Max. Tyr., 38), winds, the popular constitutions, founded on the principle of and, in particular, the terrible blast denominated Kirk free choice by a majority of voters.-When we exam- or Circius (Senec., Quæst. Nat., 5, 17), lakes, rivers ine attentively the character of the facts relative to the (Posidon., ap. Strab., 188.-Oros., 4, 16.--Greg. religious belief of Gaul, we are led to acknowledge Turon., de Glor. confess., c. 5), thunder, the sun, &c., the existence of two classes of ideas, two systems of gave place, in process of time, to the abstract notion symbols and superstitions entirely distinct from each of spirits or divinities regulating these phenomena, and other; in a word, two religions: one, altogether sen- imprinting a will on these agents. Hence we have, sible in its character, based on the adoration of nat- in a later age, the god Tarann, the spirit of the thunural phenomena, and recalling by its forms much of der (Lucan, Pharsal., 1, 466. — Torann in Gaelic, the polytheism of Greece; the other, founded on a and Tarann in Cymraig and Armoric, mean "thunmaterial, metaphysical, mysterious, and sacerdotal der"); the god Pennin, the deity of the Alps (Liv., pantheism, presenting the most astonishing conformity 21, 38); the goddess Arduinna, presiding divinity with the religions of the East. This latter has re- over the forest of Ardennes, and numerous others. ceived the name of Druidism, from the Druids, who By a still farther effort of abstraction, the general powwere its first founders and priests; the other system ers of nature, that of the human soul, and even of civil has been called the Gallic Polytheism. Even if no society, were also deified. Tarann became the god other testimony existed to prove the priority of the lat- of the skies, the mover of the universe, the supreme ter, in point of time, to Druidism, the natural and in- judge who hurled his angry thunder at mortals. The variable progress of religious ideas among all the na- sun, under the name of Bel and Belen (Auson., Carm., tions of the globe would tend to establish the fact. 2, de Profess. Burdigal.-Tertull., Apoll., c. 24It is not so, however. The old and valuable traditions Herodian, 8, 3), became a beneficent deity, causing of the Cymric race attribute to this people, in the most salutary plants to spring up and presiding over mediformal and exclusive manner, the introduction of the cine. Heus or Hesus, notwithstanding his Druidic Druidical doctrines into Gaul and Britain, as well as origin, took a station in the polytheism of Gaul, as the the organization of sovereign priesthood. According god of war and conquests; this was probably an interto these traditions, it was the chief of the first invasion, calation of the Druids. In the Cymric traditions Heus Hu, Heus, or Hesus, surnamed "the powerful," who has the character of chief deity, the supreme being. implanted in this territory, which had been conquered (Davies, Welsh Archaol., p. 110.) The genius of by his horde, the religious and political system of Dru-commerce also received the adoration of the Gauls idism. A warrior, a priest, and a legislator during his life, Hesus enjoyed, besides this, a privilege common to all founders of theocracies: he became a god after death. If the question be now put, how Druidism arose among the Cymric race, and from what source originated those striking points of resemblance between its fundamental doctrines and those of the secret religions of the East, between many of its ceremonies and those under the name of Tuetates (Lactant., Div. Inst., 1, 21.-Min. Felix, c. 30); he was regarded as the inventor of all arts and the protector of routes. The manual arts had also their particular divinities. In fine, the symbol of the liberal arts, of eloquence, and of poesy, was deified under the form of an old man, armed like the Grecian Hercules with a club and bow, but whom his captives gayly followed, attached by the gives us no information relative to these original lan- ear to chains of gold and amber, which proceeded | spoken in the principality of Wales, and called by from his mouth. He was named Ogmius. (Lucian, those who speak it the Cymraig; and the Gaelic, used Herc.-Opp., ed. Bip., vol. 7, p. 312.-Compare in the highlands of Scotland and in Ireland. History Ritter, Vorhalle, p. 368, seqq.)-Coincidences of so striking a nature with their own mythology could not fail to surprise Roman observers, nor was it difficult for them to discover, as they thought, all their own gods in the polytheism of Gaul. Cæsar consequently informs us, that they acknowledged among their divinities Mercury, Apollo, Mars, Jupiter, and Minerva. "Mercury," observes this writer, "is the deity whom they chiefly adore: they have many images of him: they account him the inventor of arts; their guide in travelling and journeys; and imagine that he has a very great influence over trade and merchandise. After him they adore Apollo, Mars, Jupiter, and Minerva, of whom they have the same opinion with other nations that Apollo averts diseases; that Minerva first introduced needlework and manufactures; that Jupiter holds the supreme power of the heavens; that Mars presides over war. To him, whenever they have determined on going to battle, they usually devote the spoil they have taken." (Cæs., B. G., 6, 17.)-This resemblance between the two systems of religion changed into identity when Gaul, subjected to the dominion of Rome, had felt for some years the influence of Roman ideas. It was then that the Gallic polytheism, honoured and favoured by the emperors, ended its career by becoming totally merged in the polytheism of Italy; while, on the other hand, Druidism, its mysteries, its doctrine, and its priesthood, were cruellymatical construction distinguish it no less from the proscribed, and extinguished amid streams of blood. 4. Origin of the Gauls. The question to be considered here is this, whether there existed a Gallic family distinct from the other families of nations in the West, and whether it was divided into two races. The proofs which we shall adduce in favour of the affirmative are of three kinds 1st, philological, deduced from an examination of the primitive languages of the west of Europe: 2d, historical, drawn from the Greek and Roman writers: 3d, likewise historical, deduced from national traditions among the Gauls. I. Proofs drawn from an examination of languages. In the countries of Europe, called by the ancients Transalpine Gaul and Britain, embracing, at the present day, France, Switzerland, the Low Countries, and the British Isles, various languages are spoken, which all, however, range themselves under two great classes: one, that of the languages of the South, draws its origin from the Latin, and embraces all the dialects of the Romans and French; the other, that of the Northern languages, is descended from the ancient Teutonic or German, and prevails in a part of Switzerland and the Low Countries, in England, and in the lowlands of Scotland. Now we know historically that the Latin language was introduced into Gaul by the Roman arms; we know, also, that the Teutonic languages, spoken in Gaul and in Britain, may be in like manner traced to the conquests of the Teutonic or German tribes these two main languages, therefore, introduced from without, are strangers to the primitive population, that is to say, to the population which occupied the countries in question anterior to these conquests. But in the midst of so many new-Latin and new-Teutonic dialects, we find in some parts of France and Britain the remains of primitive languages, completely distinct from the two great classes of which we have just made mention. Of these, France contains two, the Basque, spoken in the western Pyrenees, and the Bas-Breton, more extensively spread not long ago, but at present confined to the extremity of ancient Armorica. Britain likewise possesses two, the Welsh, 1. Of the Basque Language. This language, called Euscara by the people who Cymric and Gallic tongues, than from the derivatives 2. 2. Of the Gaelic or Gallic tongue. The Gaelic or Gallic, according to the mode of pronouncing the name, is spoken in the highlands of Scotland, in Ireland, the Hebrides, and the Isle of Man. There is no trace of any other idiom having been in use previously in these quarters, since most of the denominations of places, communities, and individuals belong exclusively to this language. If we follow its vestiges by means of geographical and historical nomenclatures, we will find that the Gaelic has prevailed in the whole of the lowlands of Scotland and in England, whence appears to have been driven out by the Cymric tongue: we may recognise it also |