CRETA. silk, and wool. Crete abounds in wild fowl and difa CRETE, I. the wife of Minos. (Apollod., 3, 1.) In the time of Polybius the Cretans had much degenerated from their ancient character, for he charges them repeatedly with the grossest immorality and the most hateful vices. (Polyb., 4, 47.-Id. ibid., 53.-Id., 6, 46.) We know also with what severity they are reproved by St. Paul, in the words of one of their own poets, Epimenides (Ep. Tit., 1, 12), Kρîτeç ȧeì Рevoται, κακὰ θηρία, γαστέρες αργαί.-The Romans did not interfere with the affairs of Crete before the war with Antiochus, when Q. Fabius Labeo crossed over CREUSA, I. a daughter of Creon, king of Corinth, into the island from Asia Minor, under pretence of claiming certain Roman captives who were detained and wife of Jason. She received from Medea, as brithere. (Liv., 37, 60.) Several years after, the island dal presents, a diadem and robe, both of which had. was invaded by a Roman army commanded by M. An- been prepared with magic art, and saturated with deadtonius, under the pretence that the Cretans had se- ly poisons. On arraying herself in these, flames burst cretly favoured the cause of Mithradates; but Florus forth, and fed upon and destroyed her. Creon, the famore candidly avows, that the desire of conquest was ther of the princess, perished in a similar way, having the real motive which led to this attack (3, 7.-Com- thrown himself upon the body of his dying daughter, pare Liv., Epit., 97). The enterprise, however, having and being afterward unable to extricate himself from failed, the subjugation of the island was not effect- the embrace of the corpse. (Eurip., Med., 781, segg. ed till some years later, by Metellus, who, from his-Id. ib., 1156, seqq.) According to the scholiast, success, obtained the agnomen of Creticus. (Liv., she was also called Glauce. (Schol. ad Eurip., Med., Epit., 99.-Appian, Excerpt. de Reb. Cret.-Flor., 3, 19.)-II. Daughter of Priam and Hecuba, and wife of 7.) It then became annexed to the Roman empire, Eneas. When Troy was surprised by the Greeks, and formed, together with Cyrenaica, one of its nu- she fled in the night with her husband, but they were merous provinces, being governed by the same pro- separated during the confusion, nor was her absence consul. (Dio Cassius, 53, 12.- Strabo, 1198.)- observed until the other fugitives arrived at the spot Crete forms an irregular parallelogram, of which the appointed for assembling. Eneas a second time western side faces Sicily, while the eastern looks to- braved the perils of the burning city in quest of his While he was distractedly seeking for her wards Egypt; on the north it is washed by the Mare wife. Creticum, and on the south by the Libyan Sea, which through every quarter of Troy, Creusa appeared to him intervenes between the island and the opposite coast as a deified personage, and appeased his alarm by inof Cyrene. The whole circumference of Crete was forming him, that she had been adopted by Cybele estimated at 4100 stadia by Artemidorus; but Sosi- among her own attendant nymphs; and she then excrates, who wrote a very accurate description of it, did horted him to pursue his course to Italy, with an intinot compute the periphery at less than 5000 stadia. mation of the good fortune that awaited him in that Hieronymus also, in reckoning the length alone at 2000 land. (Virg., Æn., 2, 562, seqq.) stadia, must have exceeded the number given by Artemidorus. (Strabo, 474.) According to Pliny, the extent of Crete from east to west is about 270 miles, and it is nearly 539 in circuit. In breadth it nowhere exceeds 50 miles. Strabo observes, that the interior is very mountainous and woody, and intersected with fertile valleys. Mount Ida, which surpasses all the other summits in elevation, rises in the centre of the island; its base occupies a circumference of nearly 600 stadia. To the west it is connected with another chain, called the white mountains (▲ɛvкà õpŋ), and to the east its prolongation forms the ridge anciently known by the name of Dicte. (Strabo, 475, 478.) The island contains no lakes, and the rivers are mostly mountain-torrents, which are dry during the summer season. It has been remarked by several ancient writers, that Homer in one passage ascribes to Crete 100 cities Il., 2, 649), and in another only 90 (Od., 19, 174), a variation which has been accounted for on the supposition, that ten of the Cretan cities were foundd posterior to the siege of Troy; but, notwithstand-Livadostro to Psato there is a path which winds around ng this explanation, which Strabo adopts from Epho- the western shore of the bay, at the base of Mount it seems rather improbable, that the poet should Citharon, and agrees very well with Xenophon's dehave paid less attention to historical accuracy in the scription. (Cramer's Ancient Greece, vol. 2, p. 202, Iliad than in the Odyssey, where it was not so much seqq.) required. The difficulty may be solved by assuming, what has every appearance of being true, that the Odyssey was not the composition of Homer, but the work of a later age. Others affirmed, that during the siege of Troy the ten deficient cities had been destroyed by the enemies of Idomeneus. (Strabo, 479. Compare Hoeck, Kreta, vol. 2, p. 437.) The Chalk was promodern name of Crete is Candia. rus, CREUSIS OF CREUSA (Κρεύσις οι Κρεῦσα), a town of Boeotia, which Pausanias (9, 32) and Livy (36, 21) term the harbour of Thespiæ. It was on the confines of the Megarean territory, and a difficult and dangerous road led along the shore from thence to Ægosthena, a seaport belonging to the latter. Xenophon, on two occasions, describes the Lacedæmonians as retreating from Boeotia by this route, with great hazard and labour, before the battle of Leuctra, when under the command of Cleombrotus, and again subsequent to that bloody conflict. (Hist. Gr., 5, 4, 17.—İbid., 6, 4, 25.) Pausanias describes the navigation from the coast of the Peloponnesus to Creusa as dangerous, on account of the many headlands which it was necessary to double, and also from the violence of the winds blowing from the mountains (9, 32.-Compare Strabo, 405 and 409.-Ptol., p. 86). The position of Creusa seems to correspond with that of Livadostro, a From well-frequented port, situated in a bay running inland towards the north, to which it gives its name. CRIMISUS OF CRIMISSUS, I. a river of Sicily, in the western part of the island, flowing into the Hypsa. D'Anville makes the modern name Cattabellotta; but Mannert, the San Bartolomao. The orthography of the ancient word is given differently in different editions of Virgil. The true reading is Crimisus or Crimissus. (Consult Heyne, in Var. Lect., ad Virg., En., 5, 38.-Cellarius, Geogr. Ant., vol. 1, p. 794.) duced in great abundance here, and was hence called-II. or Crimisa, a promontory, river, and town of The valleys or slo- Brutium, north of Crotona. The modern name of Creta Terra, or simply Creta. ping plains in modern Candia are very fertile. The the promontory is Capo dell' Alice; of the river, the greater portion of the land is not cultivated, but it Fiumenica; the modern Ciro answers to the city. might produce sugarcane, excellent wine, and the best This place was said to have been founded by Philoc kind of fruit; the exports are salt, grain, oil, honey, tetes after the siege of Troy. (Strab., 254.-Steph Byz., s. v.-Lycophr., 911.)-III. The god of the river Crimisus in Sicily. He became, by a Trojan female, the father of Acestes or gestes. (Vid. Ægestes, and compare Serv., ad Virg., Æn., 1, 550.) CRISPINUS, I. a native of Alexandrea in Egypt, of mean, if not servile, origin. According to the scholiast on Juvenal (1, 26), he was at first a paper-vender (xapronwλns), but became afterward a great favourite with Domitian, and was raised to equestrian rank. He was a man of infamous morals. (Schol., in cod. Schurz., ad Juv., l. c.-Schott, Obs., 5, 35.)-II. A ridiculous philosopher and poet in the time of Horace, and noted for garrulity. According to the scholiast (ad Horat., Serm., 1, 1, 120), he wrote some verses on the Stoic philosophy, and, on account of his verboseness and loquacity, received the appellation of uperúλoyos. (Compare Döring, ad Horat., l. c.) CRISPUS, SALLUSTIUS. Vid. Sallustius. CRITHEIS, the reputed mother of Homer. (Vid. CRITOLAUS, I. a native of Phaselis in Lycia, wno came to Athens to study philosophy, and became there, after the death of Ariston of Ceos, the head of the peripatetic school. He was sent by the Athenians, along with Carneades and Diogenes, on an embassy to Rome, B.C. 158, and acquired great reputation in that city, during his stay there, for his ability in speaking; a circumstance, however, which did not prevent his declaiming against the rhetorical art, which he considered prejudicial rather than useful. He lived more than eighty years. Critolaus strove to confirm, by new arguments, the doctrine of Aristotle respecting the eternity of the world. (Plut., de Exil., p. 605.Cic., de Fin., 5, 5.-Stobæus, Eclog. Phys., 1, 1.— Philo, Mund. Incorrupt., p. 943.)-II. A general of the Achæans, and one of the principal authors of the war between the Romans and his countrymen, which ended in the subjugation of the latter. (Polyb., 38, 2.-Id., 38, 5, &c.) CRIU-METOPON (Kρioù Méтwлоv, i. e., "Ram's Front"), I. a promontory of the Tauric Chersonese, and the most southern point of that peninsula. It i now called Karadjebouroun, according to D'Anville which signifies, in the Turkish language, Black-nose Mannert, however, makes the modern name to be Ajadag, or the Holy Mountain.-II. A promontory of Crete, forming its southwestern extremity, now Cape Crio. (Plin., 4, 11.) CROBYZI, a people between Mount Hamus and the Danube, in Lower Mæsia. Their territory lay in a northeastern direction from Philippopolis on the Hebrus. (Plin., 4, 12.) V.) CROCODILOPOLIS, a city of Egypt. (Vid. Arsinoë CROCUS, a youth who, being unable to obtain the object of his affections, the nymph Smilax, pined away, and was changed into the crocus, or "saffron." Smilax herself was metamorphosed into the smilax, or "Oriental bindweed." (Ovid, Met., 4, 283.) CRITIAS, one of the thirty tyrants set over Athens by the Spartans. He was of good family, and a man of considerable talents, but of dangerous principles. He applied himself with great success to the culture of eloquence, which he had studied under Gorgias, and Cicero cites him among the public speakers of that day. (Brut., 7.-De Orat., 2, 22.) He appears also to have had a talent for poetry, if we may judge from some fragments of his which have reached us. Critias turned his attention likewise to philosophical studies, and was one of the disciples of Socrates, whom, however, he quarrelled with and left. (Xen., Mem., 1, 2.) Being after this banished from Athens for some cause that is not known, he retired to Thessaly, where he excited an insurrection among the Penesta or serfs. (Consult Schneider, ad Xen, Hist. Gr., 2, 3, 36, et ad Xen., Mem., 1, 2, 24.) Subsequently to this he visited Sparta, and wrote a treatise on the laws and institutions of that republic. Returning to Athens along with Lysander, B.C. 404, he was appointed one of the thirty, his pride of birth and hatred of demagogues having pointed him out as a fit person for that office. After a cruel and oppressive use of the power thus conferred upon him, he fell in batttle against Thrasybulus and his followers. Plato, who was a relation of his, has made him one of the interlocutors in his Timæus and Critias. (Xen., Hist. Gr., 2, 3.-Id., 2, 4.) CRITO, I. a wealthy Athenian, the intimate friend and disciple of Socrates. When that philosopher was accused, he became security for him; and, after his condemnation, succeeded in bribing the keeper of the prison, so that Socrates, had he felt inclined, might easily have escaped. He is introduced, therefore, by Plato as an interlocutor in the dialogue called Crito, after his name. The remainder of his life is not known; but, as he was nearly of the same age with Socrates, he could not have long survived him. Crito wrote seventeen dialogues, which are lost. (Plat., Crit.-Suid., &c.)-II. A Macedonian historian, who wrote an account of Pallene, of Persia, of the foundation of Syracuse, of the Getæ, &c. (Suid., s. v.)—When this conquest was effected, he turned his III. An Athenian sculptor, who, with Nicolaus, one of his fellow-citizens, made a statue intended as a support to a building. This work, belonging to the class of Caryatides, is still extant, and forms part of the collection at the Villa Albani. Winckelmann (vol. 6, p. 203) thinks he flourished about the time of Cice(Sillig, Dict. Art., s. v.) ΤΟ CREESUS, son of Alyattes, king of Lydia, and born about 591 B.C. He was the fifth and last of the Merinadæ, a family which began to reign with Gyges, who dethroned Candaules. (Herod., 1, 14.) According to the author just quoted, Croesus was the son of Alyattes by a Carian mother, and had a half-brother, named Pantaleon, the offspring of an Ionian female. An attempt was made by a private foe of Croesus to hinder his accession to the throne, and to place the kingdom in the hands of Pantaleon; but the plot failed (Herod., 1, 92), although Stobæus (Serm., 45) informs us, that Croesus, on coming to the throne, divided the kingdom with his brother. Plutarch states, that the second wife of Alyattes, wishing to remove Croesus, gave a female baker in the royal household a dose of poison to put into the bread she made for Crasus. The woman informed Cræsus, and gave the poisoned bread to the queen's children, and the prince, out of gratitude, consecrated at Delphi a golden image of this female three cubits high. (Plut., de Pyth. Orac.-Op., ed. Reiske, vol. 7, p. 580.-Herod., 1, 51.) Croesus ascended the throne on the death of his father, B.C. 560, and immediately undertook the subjugation of the Greek communities of Asia Minor (the Eolians, Ionians, and Dorians), whose disunited state, and almost continual wars with one another, rendered his task an casy one. He contented himself, however, after reducing them beneath his sway, with merely imposing an annual tribute, and left their forms of government unaltered. thoughts to the construction of a fleet, intending to attack the islands, but was dissuaded from his purpose by Bias of Priene. (Herod., 1, 27.) Turning his arms, upon this, against the nations of Asia Minor, he subjected all the country lying west of the river Halys, except Cilicia and Lycia; and then applied himself to the arts of peace, and to the patronage of the sciences and of literature. He cine famed for his riches | when he saw a soldier in the act of killing his father and, by the exclamation which he uttered, saved his CROMI OF CROMNI, a town of Arcadia, in the district Cromitis, mentioned by Xenophon as a place of some strength. It is thought by Sir W. Gell to correspond with Crano, two hours and forty-seven minutes from Sinano, or Megalopolis. (Itin. of the Morea, p. 99.) CROMMYON, a small place in Corinthia, on the shore of the Saronic Gulf, south of the Megarean frontier. It was celebrated in mythology as the haunt of a wild boar destroyed by Theseus. (Plut., Vit. Thes., Plat, Lach, p. 196.-Strabo, 380.) Pausanias says it was named after Crommus, son of Neptune. From Thucydides (4, 44) it appears that Crommyon was 120 stadia from Corinth. The little hamlet of Canetta or Kinetta is generally thought to occupy the site of this ancient town. (Chandler's Travels, vol. 2, ch. 43.-Gell's Itin., p. 209.) CROPHI, a mountain of Egypt, between Elephantina and Syene. Between this mountain and another called Mophi were the sources of the Nile, according to a foolish statement made to Herodotus by an Egyptian priest at Sais. (Herodot., 2, 28.) CROTONA OF CROTO (KрÓTwv), now Cotrone, a powerful city of Italy, in the Brutiorum ager, on the coast of the Sinus Tarentinus. Its foundation is ascribed to Myscellus, an Achæan leader, soon after Sybaris had been colonized by a party of the same nation, which was about 715 A.C. (Antioch., Syrac., ap. 4, 26.) Its harbour, however, does not seem to have been any of the best, or well calculated to afford protection against storms and winds. It was rather what Polybius calls (10, 1) a summer-harbour. (Cramer's Anc. Italy, vol. 2, p. 391, seqq.-Mannert, Geogr., vol. 9, pt. 2, p. 210.) CROTONIATE, the inhabitants of Crotona. (Cic., de Inv., 2, 1.) CROTONIATIS ( Kрorwviāris xúpa), a part of Italy, of which Crotona was the capital. (Thucyd., 7, 35.) CRUSTUMERIUM or CRUSTUMIUM, a town of the Sabines, in the vicinity of Fidenæ, and, like Fidenæ, founded by a colony from Alba. (Dion. Hal., 2, 53.) Its great antiquity is also attested by Virgil (Æn., 7, 629), and by Silius Italicus (8, 367). From Pliny (3, 5) we learn that the Crustumini were vanquished by Romulus, and that a settlement was formed in their territory. The fertility of their lands is extolled by more than one writer. Their city, however, was not finally conquered till the reign of the elder Tarquin. (Liv., 1, 38) The name of Crustumini Colles appears to have been given to the ridge of which the Mons Sacer formed a part, since Varro, speaking of the secession of the Roman people to that hill, terms it Secessio Crustumerina. (L. L., 3, 1.) The tribe called Crustumina evidently derived its name from this ancient city. (Liv, 42, 34.) The ruins of Crustumerium are said to exist in a place now called Marcigliano Vecchio. (Vulp., Vet. Lat, lib. 18, c. 17.— Cramer's Ancient Italy, vol. 1, p. 303, seqq.) CTESIAS, I. a Greek historian and physician of Cnidus, who flourished in the time of Artaxerxes Mnemon. (Suidas, s. v.-Xen., Anab., 1, 8, 27.-Diod. Sic., 1, 32.) He was of the family of the Asclepiades, who possessed the art of healing as a patrimony, inherited from their great progenitor Esculapius. (Galen, vol. 5, p. 652, I. 51, ed. Basil.) Ctesias assisted at the battle of Cunaxa, B.C. 401, but it is not precisely known whether he was in the army of Cyrus or in that of Artaxerxes. He merely states that he healed the wound received by the latter during the conflict. In speaking, however, of the death of Clearchus, the Grecian commander, which took place a short time Strab., 262.) According to some traditions, the origin of Crotona was much more ancient, and it is said to derive its name from ne hero Croton. (Ovid, Metam., 15, 53.-Compare Heracl., Pont. Fragm., p. 20.Diod. Sic., 4, 24.) The residence of Pythagoras and his most distinguished followers in this city, together with the overthrow of Sybaris which it accomplished, and the exploits of Milo and of several other Crotoniat victors in the Olympic Games, contributed in a high degree to raise its fame. Its climate, also, was proverbially excellent, and was supposed to be particularly calculated for producing in its inhabitants that robust frame of body requisite to ensure success in gymnastic contests. Hence it was commonly said, that the last athlete of Crotona was the first of the other Greeks. (Strabo, 262.) This city was also celebrated for its school of medicine, and was the birthplace of Democedes, who long enjoyed the reputation of being the first physician of Greece. (Herodot., 3, 131.) However brilliant an epoch in the history of Crotona its triumph over Sybaris may appear, that event must be regarded also as the term of her greatness and prosperity; for from this period it is said that luxury and the love of pleasure, the usual consequences of great opulence, soon obliterated all the good effects which had been produced by the wisdom and morality of Pythagoras, and conspired to enervate that hardihood and vigour for which the Crotoniatæ had hitherto been so peculiarly distinguished. (Polyb., Fragm., 7, 1, and 10, 1.-Tim., ap. Athen., 12, 4.) As a proof of the remarkable change which took place in the warlike spirit of this people, it is said that, on their being subsequently engaged in hostilities with the Locrians, an army of 130,000 Crotoniata were routed by 10,000 of the enemy on the banks of the Sagras. Such was, indeed, the loss they experienced in this battle, that, according to Strabo, their city henceforth rapidly declined, and could no longer maintain the rank it had long held among the Italiot republics. (Strabo, 261.) According to Justin (20, 2), it is true, a much earlier date ought to be assigned to this event; but the accounts which Strabo has followed evidently regarded it as subsequent to the fall of Sybaris, and probability rather favours such an arrangement in the order of events. (Con-after the battle, he informs us, that he was then the sult Heyne, de Civit. Græc., prolus. 10, in Op. Acad., vol. 2, p. 184.) Dionysius the elder, who was then aiming at the subversion of all the states of Magna Græcia, having surprised the citadel, gained possession of the town, which, however, he did not long retain. (Liv., 24, 3.) Crotona was finally able to assert its independence against his designs, as well as the attacks of the Bruti; and when Pyrrhus invaded Italy, it was still a considerable city, extending on both banks of the Æsarus, and its walls embracing a circumference of twelve miles. But the consequences of the war which ensued with that king proved so ruinous to its prosperity, that above one half of its extent became deserted; the Esarus, which flowed through the town, now ran at some distance from the inhabited part, which was again separated from the fortress by a vacant space. Such is the picture which Livy draws of the state of this city after the battle of Canna, at which period almost all the Greek colonies abandoned the Roman cause. Crotona was then occupied by the Brutii, with the exception of the citadel, in which the chief inhabitants had taken refuge; these being unable to defend the place against a Carthaginian force, soon after surrendered, and were allowed to withdraw to Locri. (Liv., 24, 2 and 3.) Crotona eventually fell again into the hands of the Romans, A.U.C. 560, and a colony was established here. Pliny merely speaks of it as an Oppidum, without adding a single remark respecting its importance. It became a place of some consequence in the time of Belisarius, who made it, on account of its position, a chief point in his operations along the coast. (Procop., B. Goth., 3, 28, et physician of Parysatis, the mother of Artaxerxes, which would render it very probable that he was from the first in the suite of the king, and not in that of his brother. (Compare Bähr, ad Ctes., p. 16, Proleg.) He passed, after this, seventeen years at the court of Persia. Ctesias composed a History of Assyria and Persia, entitled Пepoika, in 23 books, written in the Ionic dialect. In writing this, he obtained great as sistance, as well from the oral communications of the Persians as from the archives of the empire, to which he states that he had access, and in which appear to have been deposited those royal documents which Diodorus Siculus calls Barikikai diplέpai. These annals contained rather the history of the court and the monarchs of Persia than that of the state itself. What we possess at present of the history of Ctesias, induces the belief, that it was precisely in this circle of events that the work of Ctesias just mentioned was principally taken up. It is by means of quotations given by Athenæus, and more particularly by Plutarch, that we are made acquainted with some fragments of the first six hooks, which turned entirely on the history of Assyria. We have an extract, in a somewhat more complete order, from the seventeen books that immediately follow: Photius has placed it in his Bibliotheca. Ctesias wrote also a history of India ('Ivdiká), in one book, from which Photius has also copied an extract.-On many points Ctesias is in contradiction with Herodotus, whom he accuses of dealing in fable; and also with Xenophon. He has been charged, in his turn, with being, on many occasions, negligent of the truth. What has principally injured the reputation o from Seleucia. It was founded by Vardanes, fortified by Pacorus, and became the metropolis of the whole Parthian empire. Ctesiphon was at first an inconsiderable village, but the camp of the Parthian monarchs being frequently pitched in its vicinity, caused it gradually to become a large city. In A.D. 165 it was taken by the Romans, and again 33 years after by the Emperor Severus. (Dio Cass., 75, 9.-Spartian, Vit. Sev., 16-Herodian, 3, 30.) Notwithstanding, however, its losses, it succeeded to Babylon and Seleucia as one of the great capitals of the East. In the time of Julian, Ctesiphon was a great and flourishing city; and Coche, as the only remaining part of Seleucia was called, was merely its suburb. To these two have been assigned the modern epithet of "Al Modain," or "the cities." They are now both in ruins. Ctesiphon never recovered its sack by the Saracens, A.D. 637. This place was the winter residence of the Parthian and Persian monarchs. In summer they dwelt at Ecbatana in Media. (Strabo, 743.-Plin., 6, 26.-Mannert, Geogr., vol. 5, p. 406.) CULARO, a city of the Allobroges, in Gallia Narbonensis, on the banks of the Isara. On being rebuilt by Gratian, it took the name of Gratianopolis, and is now Grenoble. (Cic., Ep. ad Fam., 10, 23.—Paul Warnefr., de Gest. Longob, 3, 8.) Ctesias is his system of chronology, which is more difficult to be reconciled with that of the Scriptures than the one adopted by Herodotus. It must be observed, however, that, among the ancient writers, Plutarch is the only one who shows little respect for Ctesias; whereas Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Pliny, and even Xenophon himself, his contemporary, cite him with praise, or at least without contradicting him. It may reasonably be asked, moreover, which of the two ought to have been better acquainted with the subject of which they treat, Herodotus or Ctesias? Herodotus, who speaks only of the affairs of Persia on the testimony of others, and who wrote at a period when the Greeks had as yet but little intercourse with Persia; or Ctesias, who had passed many years at Susa, where he enjoyed so high a reputation as to be charged with the management of some important negotiations? (Gedoyn, Mem. de l'Acad. des Inser., &c., vol. 14, p. 247, seqq.)-What has just been said, however, refers merely to the work of Ctesias on Persia. His history of India is crowded with fables. Heeren (Ideen, vol. 1, p. 323) seeks to justify Ctesias, on the ground that he details merely those of the myths of India which were in the mouths of the vulgar in Persia. Cuvier also observes, that Ctesias has by no means imagined the fantastic animals of which he speaks, but that he has fallen into the mistake of ascribing an actual existence to the hieroglyphic figures, which are remarked at the present day among the ruins of Persepolis. We there find, for example, the martichora, that fabulous animal which was the symbol or hieroglyphic of royal power. Many other fables are to be explained by the ignorance of the laws of nature, which was so great among the ancients. The fragments of Ctesias are to be found appended to various editions of Herodotus. A separate edition was given by Lion, in 1825, 8vo, Götting., and another by Bähr, in 1824, 8vo, Francof. This last is decidedly the best. The editor has not contented himself with giving an accurate text, corrected by the aid of manuscripts, but in his commentary he explains the text, with reference to history, geography, &c., and seeks also to justify Ctesias against most of the charges alleged to his discredit. (Schöll, Hist. Lat. Gr., vol. 2, p. 176, seqq.—Id., vol. 7, p. 436.)—in the chronology of Eusebius to have been about 1050 II. An Ephesian, who also wrote on Persian affairs (Consult Vossius, de Hist. Græc., 3, p. 349.)-III. An artist, mentioned by Pliny (34, 29) as having flourished, along with other carvers in silver, after the time of Myron.-IV. A spendthrift and debauched person. Some verses of the comic poets Anaxilas and Philetarus against him are preserved in Athenæus (10, p. 416, d.) CTESIBIUS, a native of Ascra, and contemporary of Archimedes, who flourished during the reigns of Ptolemy II. and Ptolemy III., or between 260 and 240 B.C. He was the son of a barber, and for some time exercised at Alexandrea the calling of his parent. His mechanical genius, however, soon caused him to emerge from obscurity, and he became known as the inventor of several very ingenious contrivances for raising water, &c. The invention of clepsydræ, or water clocks, is also ascribed to him. (Compare Vitruvius, 9, 9.) He wrote a work on hydraulic machines, which is now lost. (Schöll, Hist. Lit. Gr, vol. 3, p. 363.) | CUMA, I. a city of Eolis, in Asia Minor. (Vid. Cyme.)-II. A city of Campania in Italy, northwest of Neapolis. It was placed on a rocky hill washed by the sea; and the same name is still attached to the ruins which lie scattered around its base. Whatever doubt may have been thrown on the pretensions of many other Italian towns to a Greek origin, those of Cuma seem to stand on grounds too firm and indisputable to be called in question. It is agreed upon by all ancient writers who have adverted to this city, that it was founded at a very early period by some Greeks of Euboea, under the conduct of Hippocles of Cuma and Megasthenes of Chalcis. (Strabo, 243.—Thucyd., 6, 4.—Liv., 8, 22.) The Latin poets, moreover, with Virgil at their head, all distinguish Cuma by the title of the Euboic city. (En., 6, 2.-Orid, Met., 14, 154. Lucan, 5, 195.-Martial, 9, 30.—Statius, Sylv., 4, 3.)-The period at which Cuma was founded is stated B.C., that is, a few years before the great migration of the Ionians into Asia Minor. (Compare Scaliger, ad Euseb., Chron., and Prideaux, Not. ad Marm. Oxon., p. 146.) We have also the authority of Strabo (l. c.) for considering it as the most ancient of all the Grecian colonies in both Italy and Sicily. The colonization of Cuma at this early period is a remarkable event, as showing the progress already made by the Greeks in the art of navigation, and proving also that they were then well acquainted with Italy. (Compare Müller, Etrusker, vol. 1, p. 167.) Hence Blum is of opinion, that to an early intercourse between Rome and Cuma, by means of commercial operations, is to be ascribed the Æolic character which so clearly develops itself in the forms of the most ancient Latin. (Einleitung in Roms alte Geschichte, p. 89.) Strabo also informs us, that from its commencement the state of the colony was most flourishing. The fertility of the surrounding country, and the excellent harbours which the coast afforded, soon rendered it one of the most powerful cities of southern Italy, and enabled it to form CTESIPHON, I. an Athenian, who brought forward settlements along the coast, and to send out colonies the proposition respecting the crown of gold, which as far as Sicily. When Campania placed itself under the Athenians, on his motion, decreed to Demosthe- the protection of Rome, Cuma followed the example nes for his public services. He was accused and of that province, and obtained soon after the privileges brought to trial for this by schines, but was suc- of a municipal city. (Liv., 8, 14, and 23, 31) In cessfully defended by Demosthenes. This contro- the second Punic war it was attacked by Hannibal, but, versy gave rise to the two famous and rival orations by the exertions of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, concerning" the Crown." (Vid. Eschines, Demos- it was vigorously and successfully defended. (Làv., thenes.)-II. A city of Parthia, situate on the eastern 23, 37.) This city became a Roman colony in the bank of the Tigris, opposite to, and distant three miles reign of Augustus but, owing to the superior attractions |