name of this place Kolaccaí, a reading given also by numerous MSS. of St. Paul's Epistles. But Herodotus, Xenophon, and Strabo give the more customary forms, and they have also on their side the evidence of coins, the authority of which is not to be disputed. (Cramer's Asia Minor, vol. 2, p. 44.)

COLUMNA HERCULIS, "The Pillars of Hercules," a name often given to Calpe and Abyla, or the heights on either side of the Straits of Gibraltar. The tradition was, that the Mediterranean had no outlet in this quarter until Hercules broke through the mountain barrier, and thus formed the present straits. The rocky height on either side of the opening was fabled to have been placed there by him as a memorial of his achievement, and as marking the limits of his wanderings towards the west. (Vid. Calpe, Abyla, and Mediterraneum Mare.-Odyss., 4, 351.-Virg., Æn., 11, 262.)

very probably, part of a work on agriculture, in four books, which Columella had published as the first edition of that which we now have in twelve books. On this supposition Cassiodorus was correct in saying that Columella had written a work in sixteen books on rural economy. This author appears to have been but COLOSSUS, a celebrated brazen image at Rhodes, little read. Among the ancients, Servius, Cassiodorus, which passed for one of the seven wonders of the and Isidorus are the only ones that cite him. He world. It was the workmanship of Chares, a pupil of fell into almost complete neglect after Palladius had Lysippus, who was employed twelve years in making made an abridgment of his work. (Vid. Palladius it. its height was 105 Grecian feet; there were few II.) Hence Vincent de Beauvais and Petrus de persons who could encompass the thumb with their Crescentiis, the latter of whom Schneider calls "diliarms, and its fingers were larger than most statues. gentissimum veterum rei rustica scriptorum lectorem,” It was hollow, and in its cavities were large stones, were not acquainted with him. (Compare Script. placed there to counterbalance its weight, and render | Rei Rust., ed Schneider, vol. 2, p. 5.) The style of it steady on its pedestal. The cost was 300 talents Columella is pure and elegant; if any reproach can (nearly $317,000), and the money was obtained from be made against him, it is that of being too studied in the sale of the machines and military engines which his language on the subject of which he treats. The Demetrius Poliorcetes had left behind him when he best edition is that of Schneider, in the Scriptores raised the siege of Rhodes. (Plin., 34, 18.) The Rei Rustica, Lips., 1794-97, 4 vols. 8vo. That of Colossus is generally supposed to have stood with dis- Gesner is also in deservedly high repute, Lips., 1773, tended legs upon the two moles which formed the 2 vols. 4to. entrance of the harbour. As the city, however, had two harbours, the main one, and a second one much smaller, within which their fleets were secured, it seems more natural to suppose that this Colossus was placed at the entrance of this latter one, inasmuch as the space between the legs at the base could not have greatly exceeded fifty feet; a space too narrow to be the entrance to the main harbour. There was a winding staircase to go up to the top of the statue, from whence one might discover Syria, and the ships that went to Egypt. It was erected B.C. 300, and, after having stood about fifty-six years, was broken off below the knees, and thrown down by an earthquake. (Plin., l. c.) Eusebius says that this occurred in the second year of the 139th Olympiad; but Polybius seems to place it a little later, in the 140th Olympiad (5, 88). The same writer adds, that the greater part of the walls and docks were thrown down at the same time. It remained in ruins for the space of 894 years; and the Rhodians, who had received several large contributions to repair it, divided the money among themselves, and frustrated the expectations of the donors, by saying that the oracle of Delphi forbade them to raise it up again from its ruins. (Strab., 652.) In the year 672 of the Christian era, it was sold, according to Cedrenus, by the Saracens, who were masters of the island, to a Jewish merchant of Edessa, who loaded 900 camels with the brass. Allowing 800 pounds' weight for each load, the brass, after the diminution which it had sustained by rust, and probably by theft, amounted to about 720,000 pounds' weight. The city of Rhodes had, according to Pliny, 100 other colossuses, of inferior size, in its different quarters.-Compare the remarks of Ritter in relation to the worship of the sun, which prevailed in the earliest periods of Rhodes, and the connexion between this and the Colossus. He finds also his accustomed root (Col-) in the name of the statue. (Vorhalle, p. 104, seqq.)

COLUTHUS, a native of Lycopolis in Egypt, supposed to have lived about the beginning of the sixth century. He wrote a poem in six cantos, entitled "Calydoniacs” (Kaλvówriká), as well as other pieces that are now lost. He is believed also, though without any great degree of certitude, to have been the author of a poem, in three hundred and eighty-five verses, which bears the title of "the Rape of Helen" ("E2vns úpray). This most unfortunate imitation of Homer commences with the nuptials of Peleus and Thetis. The poet goes on, without any animation, sentiment, or grace whatsoever, to recount the judgment of Paris, the voyage of this prince to Sparta, and the abduction of Helen, which takes place after the first interview. This poem of Coluthus was discovered by Cardinal Bessarion along with that of Quintus Smyrnaus. The best editions are, that of Van Lennep, Leorard, 1747, 8vo, improved by Shaeffer, Lips., 1825, 8vo, and that of Bekker, Berol., 1816, 8vo.

COMAGENE. Vid. Commagene.

COMANA (orum), I. a city of Pontus, surnamed Pontica, to distinguish it from the Cappadocian city of the same name. It was situate to the northeast of Zela, and not far from the source of the Iris. (Strabo, 547.) This place was celebrated for the worship of the goddess Mâ, supposed to answer to the Bellona of the West. She was likewise revered with equal honours COLUMELLA (L. Junius Moderatus), an ancient in the Cappadocian Comana. The priesthood attachwriter, born at Gades, in the reign of Augustus or Ti- ed to the temple was an office of the highest emolberius, and a contemporary, according to his own ac- ument and dignity, and was sought after by kings and count, of Seneca and Celsus. The elder Pliny also princes. The city itself was large and populous, and frequently makes mention of him. His father, Marcus kept up a considerable traffic with Armenia. Columella, had possessions in the province of Bæ- festivals of the goddess, which were held twice a year, tica. The son betook himself at an early period to drew thither an immense concourse from the surroundRome, where he passed his life, with the exception of ing countries and towns, as well as from more distant a few journeys to Syria and Cilicia. It is not as-parts. There were no less than 6000 slaves attached certained whether he visited these latter countries as to the service of the temple, and most of these were a simple traveller, or on some mission of government, for we know nothing very particularly of the circumstances of his life. We have two works of his remaining one, entitled "De Re Rustica," in twelve books; the other, "De Arboribus." This last made,

The

courtesans. Hence it was remarked, that the citizens were generally addicted to pleasure, and the town itself was styled by some the little Corinth. The chief produce of the country was wine. When the Romans, under Lucullus, invaded Pontus, a report

our to ruin the colony, and even went so far as to pro- | Agesilaus from the East. The plan was approved of pose a law which should deprive it of its municipal rights. (Appian, Bell. Civ., 2, 26.--Plut., Vit. Cæs. -Suet., Vit. Jul., 28.) If they succeeded in their designs, it was only for a short time; since we may collect from the letters of the younger Pliny, who was born at Comum, that his native city was in his time in a very flourishing state, and in the enjoyment of all the privileges which belonged to a Roman corporation, independently of the prosperity and affluence it would naturally derive from the peculiar advantages of its situation. (Plin., Ep., 3, 6-Id. ibid., 4, 13.-Id bid, 4, 24.) Comum is now Como. (Cramer's Anc. Italy, vol. 1, p. 60.)

CONSTANTINA, a princess, wife of the Emperor | struggle, Galerius conferred the title of emperor on

Gallus.

his friend Licinius; and thus there were at once six CONSTANTINOPOLIS. Vid. Byzantium. pretenders to the sovereignty of the empire, nameCONSTANTINUS (Caius Flavius Valerius Aurelius ly, Galerius and Licinius, Maximian and his son MaxClaudius), surnamed the Great, son of the Emperor entius, Maximin, who had been nominated Cæsar Constantius Chlorus, was born A.D. 272, or, according by Galerius, and Constantine, the son and successor to some authorities, A.D. 274, at Naisus, a city of Da- of Constantius. Among these rivals Constantine cia Mediterranea. When Constantine's father was possessed a decided superiority in prudence and abilassociated in the government by Dioclesian, the senities, both military and political. The harsh temwas retained at court as a kind of hostage, but was per of Maximian soon led to a quarrel between him treated with great kindness at first, and was allowed and his son Maxentius. Quitting Rome, he went to several opportunities of distinguishing himself. After Gaul, to Constantine, who had become his son-in-law the abdication of Dioclesian, Constantius and Gale- when he and his son were endeavouring to make head rius were elevated to the rank of Augusti, while two against Galerius. Here also Maximian found himself new Cæsars, Severus and Maximin, were appointed disappointed of that power which he so greatly longed to second them. Constantine was not called to the to possess, and, having plotted against Constantine, succession. Dioclesian, partial to Galerius, his son- was detected and put to death. Galerius died not in-law, had left the nomination of the two new Ca- long after, leaving his power to be divided between sars to the latter; and the son of Constantius, whose his Cæsars Maximin and Licinius; and there were popularity and talents had excited the jealousy of now four competitors for the empire, Constantine, Galerius, and whose departure, although earnestly so- Maxentius, Maximin, and Licinius. Maxentius speedlicited by his father, was delayed from time to time ily provoked open hostilities with Constantine, who under the most frivolous pretences, with difficulty at marched at the head of a powerful army towards Rome. length obtained permission to join his parent in the It was while Constantine was proceeding on this moWest, and only escaped the machinations of the em- mentous expedition that he made an open and public peror by travelling with his utmost speed until he declaration in favour of Christianity. Before that reached the western coast of Gaul. He came just in time, the persecuting edicts of Dioclesian had been time to join the Roman legions, which were about to much mitigated by the forbearance and leniency of sail under his father's command to Britain, in order to Constantius; and Constantine not only followed his make war upon the Caledonians. Having subdued father's example in being merciful to the persecuted the northern barbarians, Constantius returned to York, Christians, but even showed them some marks of poswhere he died in the month of July, in the year 306.itive favour. Very considerable numbers of them, in Galerius, sure of the support of his two creatures, the consequence, flocked to his standard, and swelled the Cæsars, had waited impatiently for the death of his ranks of his army. Their peaceful, orderly, and faithful colleague, to unite the whole Roman empire under his conduct, contrasting most favourably with the turbuindividual sway. But the moderation and justice of lent and dissolute behaviour of those who formed the Constantius had rendered him the more dear to his mass of common armies, won his entire confidence. soldiers from the contrast of these qualities with the To what extent this led Constantine to form a favourferocity of his rival. At the moment of his death, the ble opinion of Christianity, or inclined him to view legions stationed at York, as a tribute of gratitude and with esteem and respect the tenets which had produced affection to his memory, and, according to some, at his such results, cannot be ascertained. How far his dying request, saluted his son Constantine with the avowed reception of Christianity was influenced by title of Cæsar, and decorated him with the purple. the prudence of the politician, how far by the convicWhatever resentment Galerius felt at this, he soon tion of the convert, it is impossible to determine. The perceived the danger of engaging in a civil war. As accounts of his dream and his vision (vid. Labarum). the eldest of the emperors, and the representative of which united to enforce his trust in Christianity, bear Dioclesian, he recognised the authority of the col- too much the aspect of fiction, or of having been the league imposed upon him by the legions. He as-illusive consequences of mental anxiety, brooding insigned unto him the administration of Gaul and Brit- tensely on the possible results of a great religious revain, but gave him only the fourth rank among the olution, to be woven into the narrative of sober history. rulers of the empire, and the title of Cæsar. Under This, at least, is certain : Constantine caused the cross this official appellation, Constantine administered the to be employed as the imperial standard, and advanced prefecture of Gaul for six years (A.D. 306-312), with it to promised victory. After the armies of Maxperhaps the most glorious, and certainly the most vir- entius, led by his generals, had sustained two suc tuous, period of his life.-The title and rank of Augus-cessive defeats, that emperor himself, awakening from tus, which his soldiers had conferred upon Constan, tine, but which Galerius had not allowed him to retain, the latter gave to Severus, one of his own Cæsars. This dignity had been expected by Maxentius, son of the abdicated Emperor Maximian, the former colleague of Dioclesian. Indignant at his disappointment, Maxentius caused himself to be proclaimed emperor by his army; and, to colour his usurpation, he induced his father to leave his retreat and resume the imperial title. A scene of contention followed, scarcely paralleled in the annals of Rome. Severus marched against the two usurpers; but was abandoned by his own troops, yielded, and was slain. Galerius levied a great army, and marched into Italy against Maximian and Maxentius, who, dreading his power, retired to Gaul, and endeavoured to procure the support of Constantine. This politic prince did not consider it expedient to provoke a war at that time, and for no better cause; and Galerius having withdrawn from Italy and returned to the East, Maximian and Maxentius returned to Rome. To aid him in the

his sensual and inactive life at Rome, advanced against his formidable, assailant, and met him near the little river Cremera, about nine miles from the city. Maxentius lost the day, after a bloody conflict, and, in endeavouring to enter the city by the Milvian bridge, was precipitated into the Tiber, where he perished. Constantine was received at Rome with acclamations; Africa acknowledged him, as well as Italy; and an edict of religious toleration, issued at Milan, extended the advantages, hitherto enjoyed by Gaul_alone, to this prefecture also. After a brief stay at Rome, during which he restored to the senate their authority, disbanded the prætorian guard, and destroyed their fortified camp, from which they had so long awed the city and given rulers to the empire, Constantine proceeded to Illyricum to meet Licinius, with whom he had formed a secret league before marching against Maxentius. The two emperors met at Milan, where their alliance was ratified by the marriage of Licinius to Constantine's sister. During this calm interview, Constantine prevailed upon Licinius to repeal the per

Cæsar, which he obtained, by his victories in Britain and Germany. He became the colleague of Galerius on the abdication of Dioclesian; and, after bearing the character of a humane and benevolent prince, he died at York, and had his son for his successor, A.D. 306.II. The third son of Constantine the Great. (Vid. Constantinus.)-III. The father of Julian and Gallus, was son of Constantius by Theodora, and died A.D. 337.-IV. A Roman general, who married Piacidia, the sister of Honorius, and was proclaimed emperor, an honour he enjoyed only seven months. He died universally regretted, 421 A.D., and was succeeded by his son Valentinian in the West.

CONSUALIA, the festival of the god Consus. (Vid. Consus.)

CONSULES, two chief magistrates at Rome, chosen annually by the people. The office commenced after the expulsion of the kings, and the first two consuls were L. Junius Brutus and L. Tarquinius Collatinus, A.U.C. 244. In the first ages of the republic the two consuls were always chosen from patrician families; but the people obtained the privilege, A.U.C. 388, of electing one of the consuls from their own body; and sometimes both were plebeians. The first consul from the plebeians was L. Sextius.—It was required that every candidate for the consulship should be forty-three years of age. He was always to appear at the election as a private man, without a reti

secuting edicts of Dioclesian, and to issue a new one, | father of Constantine the Great, merited the title of by which Christianity was encouraged, its teachers were honoured, and its adherents advanced to places of trust and influence in the state. After the overthrow of Maximin by Licinius, and his death at Nicomedia, Constantine and his brother-in-law were now the only two that remained of the six competitors for the empire; and the peace between them, which had seemed to be established on so firm a basis, was soon interrupted by a strife for sole supremacy. In the first war (A.C. 315) Constantine wrested Illyricum from his competitor. After an interval of eight years the contest was renewed. Licinius was beaten before Adrianople, the 3d July, 323, and Constantine the Great was recognised as sole master of the Roman world. The seat of empire was now transferred to Byzantium, which took from him the name of Constantinople. Several edicts were issued for the suppression of idolatry; and their churches and property restored to the Christians, of which they had been deprived during the last persecution. A re-construction of the empire was effected upon a plan entirely new, and this renovated empire was pervaded by the worship and the institutions of Christianity. That much of the policy of the statesman was mixed up with this patronage of the new religion can easily be imagined. But still it would be wrong to make him, as some have done, a mere hypocrite and dissembler. The state of his religious knowledge, as far as we have any means of judging, was certainly very inadequate and imper-nue; and it was requisite, before he canvassed for the fect; but he was well aware of the characters of the office, to have discharged the inferior functions of two conflicting religions, Christianity and Paganism, quæ stor, ædile, and prætor. Sometimes, however, and the purity of the former could not but have made these qualifications were disregarded. M. Valerius some impression upon his mind.-The private charac- Corvus was made a consul in his twenty-third year; ter of Constantine has suffered, in the eyes of posteri- Scipio Africanus the Elder in his twenty-fourth, and ty, from the cruel treatment of Crispus, his son by his the Younger in his thirty-eighth; T. Quinctius Flamifirst wife, whom he had made the partner of his empire ninus when not quite thirty; Pompey before he was and the commander of his armies. Crispus was at the full thirty-six.-The consuls were at the head of the head of the administration in Gaul, where he gained whole republic; all the other magistrates were subject the hearts of the people. In the wars against Licinius to them, except the tribunes of the commons. They he had displayed singular talents, and had secured vic-assembled the people and senate, laid before them tory to the arms of his father. But, from that moment, what they pleased, and executed their decrees. The a shameful and unnatural jealousy stifled every paternal laws which they proposed and got passed were usually feeling in the bosom of the monarch. He detained called by their name. They received all letters from Crispus in his palace, surrounded him with spies and the governors of provinces, and from foreign kings and informers, and at length, in the month of July, 326, states, and gave audience to ambassadors. The year ordered him to be arrested in the midst of a grand was named after them, as it used to be at Athens from festival, to be carried off to Pola in Istria, and there one of the archons. Their insignia were the same put to death. A cousin of Crispus, the son of Licini- with those of the kings (except the crown), namely, as and Constantine's sister, was at the same time sent, the toga prætexta, sella curulis, the sceptre or ivory without trial, without even accusation, to the block. staff, and twelve lictors with the fasces and securis. His mother implored in vain, and died of grief. Faus- Within the city, the lictors went before only one of ta, the daughter of Maximian, the wife of Constantine, the consuls, and that commonly for a month alterand the mother of the three princes who succeeded nately. A public servant, called accensus, went behim, was shortly after stifled in the bath by order of fore the other consul, and the lictors followed. her husband.-Constantine died at the age of sixty- who was eldest, or had most children, or who was first three, at Nicomedia, May 22, 337, after a reign of elected, or had most suffrages, had the fasces first. thirty-one years from the death of his father, and of When the consuls commanded different armies, each fourteen from the conquest of the empire. (Hether- of them had the fasces and securis; but when they ington, Hist. of Rome, p. 236, seqq.-Sismondi, Fail both commanded the same army, they commonly had of the Roman Empire, p. 76, seqq.-Encyclop. Me- them for a day alternately. Valerius Poplicola took tropol., div. 3, vol. 3, p. 74, seqq.)-Constantine left away the securis from the fasces, i. e., he took from three sons, Constantine, Constans, and Constantius, the consuls the power of life and death, and only left among whom he divided his empire. The first, who them the right of scourging. Out of the city, howhad Gaul, Spain, and Britain for his portion, was con- ever, when invested with military command, they requered by the armies of his brother Constans, and tained the securis, i. e., the right of punishing capikilled in the twenty-fifth year of his age, A.D. 340. tally. Their provinces used anciently to be decreed Magnentius, the governor of the provinces of Rhætia, by the senate after the consuls were elected or had murdered Constans in his bed, after a reign of thirteen entered on their office. But by the Sempronian law, years; and Constantius, the only surviving brother, passed A.U.C. 631, the senate always decreed two now become the sole emperor, A.D. 353, punished his provinces to the future consuls before their election, brother's murderer, and gave way to cruelty and op- which they, after entering upon their office, divided pression. He visited Rome, where he displayed a by lot or agreement. Sometimes a certain province triumph, and died in his march against Julian, who had was assigned to some one of the consuls, both by the been proclaimed emperor by his soldiers. senate and people, and sometimes again the people CONSTANTIUS, I. CHLORUS, son of Eutropius, and reversed what the senate had decreed respecting the

He