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piévres). It is probable, therefore, that Chœrilus knew the inhabitants of these countries had in general the custom of cutting the hair of the head in this way, and that his means of information had not put him in possession of the fact, that one community of Syria deviated from this custom. (Schöll, Hist. Lit. Gr., vol. 2, p. 125, seqq )-III. A poet of lassus in Asia Minor, of whom Horace (Epist., 2, 1, 233.—Epist. ad Pis., 357), Quintus Curtius (8, 5, 8), and Ausonins (Ep. 16), as well as Acron and Porphyrion, the scholiasts on Horace, make mention. It was to this poet that Alexander the Great is said to have promised a piece of gold for every good verse which he should compose in his praise. The commentator,

us, informs us, that Chœrilus could only produce seven lines that were deemed worthy of the price offered by the monarch. Porphyrion, however, remarks in more general terms, "Hujus omnino septem versus laudabantur." Now Strabo (672), and also Athenæus (8, 356), have preserved for us a translation, by Cherilus, into seven hexameters, of the Assyrian inscription on the tomb of Sardanapalus; and hence it has been supposed that these are the seven verses to which the scholiasts refer.-It is also stated of Charitus that he consented to receive a blow for every verse of his encomiums on Alexander which should be rejected by the judges, and that he paid dearly, in consequence, for his foolish presumption. It is probable that he was the author of the poem on the Lamiac war (Aaμiakú), which Suidas erroneously ascribes to the Samian Chorilus. (Chœrilus, ed. Näke, p. 101, seqq.-Schöll, Hist. Lit. Gr., vol. 3, p. 75.)

CHORASMII, a people of Asia, between Sogdiana and the northeastern shore of the Caspian, whose capital was Gorgo, now Urgheng. Their country is now Kharasm. Ritter has some curious speculations on the name Khorasan, as indicating a country in which the worship of the sun anciently prevailed (KhorAsan.. Ritter, Vorhalle, p. 90.)

an what this same lexicographer adds, that Cheerilus | only a dialect (Γλῶσσαν μὲν Φοίνισσαν ἀπὸ στομάτων was a young man when Xerxes invaded Greece, there is a contradiction to the previous assertion, since Herodotus was at this time but just born. Plutarch states, that Lysander of Sparta was very fond of the poet's society this would fix the period when he flourished between the peace of Cimon and the commencement of the Peloponnesian war, or between 460 and 431 B.C. (Chœrilus, ed. Näke, p. 21, seqq.) In his old age Charilus was invited to the court of Macedonia by King Archelaus, who allowed him, it is said, three mine daily. At the court of this prince he died. Chorilus perceived that a poet could no longer please by following the footsteps of Homer, since a people arrived at the degree of civilization in which the Greeks then were, seemed no longer capable of rel-known under the name of the scholiast of Cruquiishing, in a modern work, the simplicity which possesses so many charms in the earlier national poetry. Chœrilus selected, in consequence, an historical subject, the victory of his countrymen over the arms of Xerxes. In this, however, he was unfortunate, since so recent an event was incompatible with the employment of fiction, and fiction is an important part of the machinery of every epic poem. According to Stobæus, he entitled his poem IIɛponis, the Perseid." We have so few fragments remaining of this poem of his, that we are unable to ascertain whether he ended it with the battle of Salamis, or carried it on to the close of the war with Xerxes. This poem was a monument raised to the glory of the Athenians. An ancient law of Solon's relative to Homer, was revived in honour of Cheerilus, and the people decreed that the poem should be publicly read, every year, at the festival of the Panathena. Suidas, it is true, merely states, that "it was decreed that this poem should be read with those of Homer." But such a resolve could only proceed from the Athenians, and could only have reference to the great celebration just mentioned, which periodically reunited the tribes of Attica. Suidas adds, that the author received a piece of gold for every verse; a recompense but little in unison with the spirit of a republic, and still less probable in the case of a long epic poem. It would CHOSROES, I. (more correctly Khosrou), king of Perseem, in fact, that Suidas is here mistaken, and re- sia, surnamed the Great, was the twenty-first monarch lates of the Samian Cheerilus what happened to an- of the line of the Sassanides, and succeeded his father other poet of the same name, who composed an effu- Kobad, A.D. 531. The Orientals, even after the lapse sion in honour of Alexander the Great. (Charilus, of twelve centuries, are accustomed to cite him as a ed. Näke, p. 78, seqq.) Whatever the reputation of model for kings, and the glorious surname of the "Just" Chorilus may have been, one thing at least is certain, is one which he frequently bears in history. Chosthat the Alexandrean critics excluded him from their roes manifested even in early life the germes of those canon, in which they assigned the fifth and last place virtues which were afterward so brilliantly developed to his rival Antimachus. A certain want of elegance by him on coming to the throne. At the period of his with which the style of Chorilus was reproached, as accession Persia was involved in a war with Justinian, well as the predilection of Plato for Antimachus, may but Chosroes succeeded in negotiating a favourable have been the primary causes of this disgraceful ex- peace, by the terms of which the Roman emperor had clusion of the Athenian poet-Among the fragments to pay 11,000 pounds of gold, and forego various adof the Perseid which have come down to us, there are vantages. Not long after (A.D. 540), having become some verses that have given rise to a curious discus- powerful by reason of various Asiatic conquests, and sion. The lines in question are preserved for us regarding the Romans as usurpers of many of the an by Josephus (contra Apion., 1, p. 454-vol. 2, ed. cient provinces of Persia, he invaded Syria, laid AnHavercamp), as the most ancient profane document tioch in ashes, and only drew off his forces from the in which mention is made of the Jews. In the enu- territories of the empire on the payment of a considermeration of the forces composing the army of Xerxes, able sum. After several other victorious expeditions, Cherilus speaks of the inhabitants of the mountains he renewed the war with Justin, the successor of Jusof Solymi, in the vicinity of a large lake. (krov & tinian, whom he compelled to solicit a truce, but was ἐν Σολύμοις ὄρεσιν, πλατέῃ ἐπὶ λίμνη.) Josephus is soon after driven back across the Euphrates by Tibeconvinced that the poet means Jerusalem, but some rius, the new emperor, and the Romans took up their critics of modern days insist that the Solymi in Lycia winter-quarters in the Persian provinces. Chosroes are meant, because Cherilus speaks of these troops died A.D. 579, after a glorious reign of forty-eight as троxokovρúdεs, i. e., having the hair cut in a cir- years. He encouraged the arts, founded schools, and cular form a usage which the Levitical law (Levit., is said to have made considerable proficiency in philos19, 27) forbade, with the express view of distinguish-ophy himself. (Saint-Martin, in Biogr. Univ., vol. ing the Jews from the neighbouring nations. All 22, p. 380, seqq.-Encycl. Am., vol. 3, p. 162.)—II. doubt, however, is removed with regard to the poet's The second of the name, grandson of the preceding, meaning, by his adding, that the troops in question ascended the Persian throne A.D. 590. The earlier spoke the Phoenician tongue, of which the Hebrew is part of his career was marked by great reverses of for

CHORBUS. Vid. Corabus.

tune, he having been dethroned and driven from his [ kingdom by a formidable rival, and compelled to take refuge with the Emperor Maurice. He owed his restoration to the generous aid of the same potentate. Not long after, upon the death of Maurice, he carried his victorious arms against his former allies, to the very walls of Constantinople and Alexandrea; and subsequently he beheld the very Romans, whom he had so often defeated, penetrating, under Heraclius, into the heart of the Persian empire, and pillaging and burning his palace itself. He was at last dethroned by his own son and cast into prison, where he died A.D. 628. (Saint-Martin, in Biogr. Univ., vol. 22, p. 391.)

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CHRYSEIS, the patronymic of Astynome, daughter of Chryses. (Vid. Chryses.)

CHRYSES, a priest of Apollo Smintheus at Chrysa. He was the father of Astynome, who was called from him Chryseis. In the division of the spoils of Hypoplacian Thebe, when that city was taken by the Greeks, Chryseïs, as one of the captives, fell to the share of Agamemnon. Chryses, upon hearing of his daughter's fate, repaired to the Grecian camp, attired in his sacerdotal insignia, to solicit her restitution; and when his prayers were fruitless, he implored the aid of Apollo, who visited the Greeks with a pesti lence, and obliged them to restore Chryseis. (Hom., Il., 1, 11, seqq.-Id. ib., 366, seqq.) It has been asked how Chryseïs, a native of Chrysa, could have been taken prisoner at Thebe? Eustathius solves the difficulty, giving us our choice of one of two explan tions. According to one account, as he informs us, she had been sent to Thebe as to a place of more safety than Chrysa, while another made her to have gone thither to attend a festival of Diana. (Eustath. ad Il., 1. 366.)

CHRYSA, I. a town of Troas, on the coast, near the city of Hamaxitus, where lived Chryses, the fa- CHRYSIPPUS, I. a son of Pelops, carried off by ther of the beautiful Chryseïs. (Homer, Iliad, 1, 37. Laius. (Apollod., 3, 5, 6.) This circumstance be-Id. ibid., 430, &c.) Strabo (604), however, places came a theme with many ancient writers, and hence it in the innermost part of the Adramyttian Gulf, the story assumed different shapes, according to the and hence some are in favour of making two places fancy of those who handled it. The death of Chrysipof this name, an old and a new Chrysa. (Compare pus was also related in different ways. According to Heyne's note to the German transl. of Le Chevalier, the common account, he was slain by Atreus, at the p. 7, seqq.) This place was famous for a temple of instigation of & stepmother Hippodamia. (Consult Apollo Smintheus (vid. Smintheus), whence it was Heyne, ad lo.)-II. A stoic philosopher of Soli in also called Sminthium. (Mannert, Geogr., vol. 6, pt. Cilicia Campestris. He fixed his residence at Athens, 3, p. 463.)-II. A small island in the immediate vi- and became a disciple of Cleanthes, the successor of cinity of Lemnos, in which Philoctetes took up his Zeno. He was equally distinguished for natural abilabode when suffering from the wound inflicted by one ities and industry, seldom suffering a day to elapse of the arrows of Hercules. (Pausan., 8, 33.) It without writing 500 lines. He wrote several hundred was afterward submerged by the sea, in accordance volumes, of which three hundred were on logical subwith an ancient prediction. (Herodot., 7, 6.) Choi- jects, but in all he borrowed largely from others. He seul-Gouffier (Voyage pittoresque de la Greece, vol. 2, maintained, with the Stoics in general, that the world p. 129) thinks he saw traces of it still remaining was God, or a universal effusion of his spirit, and That the change here referred to has been occasioned that the superior part of this spirit, which consisted in by volcanic action no one can doubt. (Vid. Mosych- mind and reason, was the common nature of things, lus.) The whole island of Lemnos is said to bear containing the whole and every part. Sometimes he the strongest marks of the effects of volcanic fire; the speaks of God as the power of fate and the necessary rocks in many parts are like the burned and vitrified chain of events; sometimes he calls him fire, and scoria of furnaces. (Hunt's Journal, in Walpole's sometimes he deifies the fluid parts of nature, as water Collection, vol. 2, p. 59.) and air; and again, the earth, sun, moon, and stars, and the universe in which these are comprehended, and even those men who have obtained immortality. He was very fond of the figure Sorites in arguing, which is hence called by Persius the heap of Chrysippus. His discourses abounded more in curious subtleties and nice distinctions than in solid arguments. In disputation, in which he spent the greatest part or his life, he discovered a degree of promptitude and confidence which approached towards audacity. He often said to his preceptor," Give me doctrines, and I will find arguments to support them." It was a singular proof of his haughty spirit, that when a certain person asked him what preceptor he would advise him to choose for his son, he said, "Me; for if I thought any philosopher excelled me, I would myself become his pupil " With so much contempt did he look down upon the distinctions of rank, that he would never, as other philosophers did, pay his court to princes or great men, by dedicating to them any of his writings. The vehemence and arrogance with which he supported his tenets, created him many adversaries, particularly in the Academic and Epicurean sects. Even his friends of the Stoic school complained, that, in the warmth of dispute, while he was attempting to load his adversary with the reproach of obscurity and absurdity, his own ingenuity often failed him, and he adopted such unusual and illogical modes of reasoning, as gave his opponents great advantages over him. (Cic., Ac. Quæst., 4, 27.) It was also

CHRYSANTHIUS, an eclectic philosopher of Sardis, made highpriest of Lydia by the Emperor Julian, and supposed to possess a power of conversing with the gods and of predicting future events. (Eunap, p. 144, seqq.-Enfield's History of Philosophy, vol. 2, p. 71.)

CHRYSÃOR, a son of Medusa by Neptune, born immediately after the decapitation of his mother by Perseus. (Apollod., 2, 4, 2.-Heyne, ad loc.) He was of gigantic stature, and received his name, according to Hesiod (Theog., 283), from his wielding in his hands a "golden sword" (xpúσεlov čop). Chrysaor became by Callirhoë, one of the ocean-nymphs, the father of Geryon and Echidna. (Hesiod, Theog., 287, seqq. — Compare Clesias Ephes. ap. Plut. de flum., p. 1034, ed. Wytt.-Tzetz. ad Lycophr., v. 17.)-The legend of Chrysaor, like that of Perseus itself, has a blended religious and astronomical reference. It is based on the idea of purification by blood, and also of the reappearance of fertility, after the darker period of the year, the months of winter, have passed away. (Compare remarks under the article Perseus.)

CHRYSAORIUS, a surname of Jupiter, from his temple at Stratonice in Caria. There was a political union of certain Carian states, which held their meetings here, under the name of Chrysaorium. These states had votes in proportion to the number of towns they possessed. (Strab., 660.— Cramer's Asia Minor, vol. 2, p. 204.)

a common practice with Chrysippus, at different times, | to Herodias, who sought the head of John in a char to take the opposite sides of the same question, and thus furnish his antagonists with weapons, which might easily be turned, as occasion offered, against himself. Carneades, who was one of his most able and skilful adversaries, frequently availed himself of this circumstance, and refuted Chrysippus by convicting him of inconsistency. Of his writings nothing remains, except a few extracts which are preserved in the works of Cicero, Plutarch, Seneca, and Aulus Gellius. He died in the 143d Olympiad, B.C. 208, at the age of eighty-three. A statue was erected to his memory by Ptolemy. (Diog. Laert., 7, 189,-Enfield's History of Philosophy, vol. 1, p. 358.)

CHRYSOCERAS, or the horn of gold, a name given to the harbour of Byzantiuin. (Vid. Byzantium.) CHRYSOPOLIS, a town and harbour opposite Byzantium, on the Asiatic shore. It is often mentioned in history. The Athenians established there a toll, towards the close of the Peloponnesian war, to be paid by all ships coming from the Euxine. (Xen., Hist. Gr., 1, 1, 14.-Polyb., 4, 44, 3.) The ten thousand Greeks were encamped there for some days prior to crossing over into Thrace. (Xen., Anab., 6, 6, 22.) It is mentioned by Strabo (563) as a small town, and Pliny says, Fuit Chrysopolis" (5, 32). Several historians, however, of a later date, continue to speak of it. (Zosim., 2, 30.-Socrat., Hist. Eccles., 1, 4.Amm. Marcell., 22, 12.) Stephanus of Byzantium gives various etymological derivations of the name. The modern Scutari is thought to correspond to the ancient place. (Cramer's Asia Minor, vol. 1, p. 191, seq.)

66

CHRYSORRHOAS, or Golden Stream, a river of Syria, near Damascus. It rises in Mount Libanus, and, after leaving its native valley, divides itself into five small streams near the village of Dumar, The main one of these flows through Damascus, while two others water the gardens in the plain of El-Gutha. All the streams unite subsequently, and their collected waters empty into the sea. The Chrysorrhoas is the same with the Bardine or Amana (in Scripture Abana, 2 Kings, 5, 12), now the Baradi. (Abulfeda, Tab. Syr.-Burckhardt, p. 37.-Von Richter, Wallfahrt, p. 154, seqq.)

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ger, the anger of Eudoxia was not altogether unjustifia ble. The consequence of her resentment was the assembling of another synod, and in A.D. 404 the patriarch was again deposed and sent into exile. The place of his banishment was Cucusus, a lonely town among the ridges of Mount Taurus, on the confines of Cappadocia and Cilicia. He sustained himself with much fortitude; but having, by means of his great influence and many adherents, procured the intercession of the western emperor, Honorius, with his brother Arcadius, he was ordered to be removed still farther from the capital, and died on the journey at Comana in Pontus, A.D. 407, at the age of sixty. Opinion was much divided in regard to his merits for some time after his death, but at length his partisans prevailed, and, thirty years from his decease, he was removed from his place of interment as a saint, and his remains were met in procession by the Emperor Theodosius the younger, on their removal from the place of his original interment to Constantinople. Chrysostom was a voluminous writer, but more eloquent than either learned or acute. Although falling short of Attic purity, his style is free, copious, and unaffected, and his diction often glowing and elevated. The numerous treatises or sermons by which he chiefly gained his reputation, are very curious for the information they contain on the customs and manners of the times, as elicited by his declamation against prevailing vices and follies. The first entire Greek edition of the works of Chrysostom was that of Sir Henry Saville, at Eton, in 8 vols. folio, 1613; but that of Montfaucon, Paris, with annotations and his life, 11 vols. folio, 1718, is by far the most complete. (Gorton's Biogr. Dict., vol. 1, p. 485.)

CHRYSOTHĚMIS, I. a daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra.-II. A Cretan, who first obtained the poetical prize at the Pythian games. (Pausanias, 10, 7.)

CIBILE, a town of Lower Pannonia, situate on the Saavus, about fifty miles from Sirmium, and about one hundred from the confluence of the Saavus and Danube. It was famous for the defeat of Licinius by Constantine, A.D. 315, and was also the birthplace of Gratian. Its name is preserved in the obscure ruins of Savilei. (Eutropius, 10, 4.-Amm. Marcellinus, 30, 24.)

CHRYSOSTOM (St. John), an eminent father of the church, was born of a noble family at Antioch, A.D. 347. His father's name was Secundus, and the sur- CIBYRA, I. a flourishing commercial city in the name of Chrysostom, or "golden mouth" (XpvróσTO- Southwest angle of Phrygia, between Lycia and CaHoç), obtained by the son, was given to him on account ria. It was surnamed the Great for distinction' sake of his eloquence. He was bred to the bar, but quitted from another city of the same name situate in Pamit for an ascetic life: first, with a monk on a mount-phylia. Cibyra seems to have been originally a small ain near Antioch, and then in a cave by himself. He town of the Cabalees, from whom the tract of Cabalia remained in this retirement six years, when he re- or Cabalis took its name. On the accession, however, turned to Antioch, and, being ordained, became so celebrated for his talents as a preacher, that, on the death of Nectarius, patriarch of Constantinople, he was chosen to supply his place. On obtaining this preferment, which he very unwillingly accepted, he acted with great vigour and austerity in the reform of abuses, and exhibited all the mistaken notions of the day in regard to celibacy and the monastic life. He also persecuted the pagans and heretics with great zeal, and sought to extend his episcopal power with such unremitting ardour, that he involved himself in a quarrel with Theophilus, bishop of Alexandrea, who enjoyed the patronage of the Empress Eudoxia; which quarrel ended in his formal deposition by a synod held at Chalcedon A.D. 403. He was, however, so popular in Constantinople, that a formidable insurrection ensued, and the empress herself interfered for his return. Towards the end of the same year, owing to his zeal relative to a statue of Eudoxia, placed near the great church, and causing a disturbance of public worship, all his troubles were renewed. If true, that in one of his sermons the empress was compared by him

of a Pisidian colony, the site was changed, the town considerably enlarged, and the name gradually altered from Cabalis, or some analogous form, to that of Cibyra. The place became very prosperous, and its prosperity was chiefly owing to the excellence of its laws, though the government was that of an absolute monarchy. Under this government were included the three old Cabalian towns of Bubon, Balbura, and Enoanda, and these, together with the capital Cibyra, constituted a tetrapolis. Each of these towns had one vote in the general assembly of the states, except Cibyra, which had two, in consideration of its superior power. This city, as we are told by Strabo, could raise no less than 30,000 foot and 2000 horse, and its influence and power extended over a part of Pisidia, Milyas, and Lycia, as far as Peræa of the Rhodians. (Strab., 631.) After its conquest by the Romans, we find Cibyra mentioned as the chief city of a considerable forum or conventus, comprising not less than twenty-five towns. (Cic., Ep. ad Att., 5, 21.

-Plin., 5, 29.) According to Tacitus (Ann., 4, 13), Cibyra, having been nearly destroyed by an earth

CIC

quake, was afterward restored by Tiberius. In later
writers we find it included within the limits of Caria.
(Hierocl., 690.) Strabo reports, that there were four
dialects in use at Cibyra: that of the ancient Solymi,
the Greek, the Pisidian, and the Lydian; the latter,
however, he adds, was quite extinct even in Lydia.
The Cibyratæ excelled in engraving on iron or steel.
(Strab., 631.) No trace of the ruins of Cibyra has as
yet been discovered. They are to be found, however,
in all probability, not far from Denisli, or Laodicea,
on a river which is either the Lycus or a branch of it.
(Cramer's Asia Minor, vol. 2, p. 269, seqq.)-II. A
town on the coast of Pamphylia, southeast of Aspen-
dus, called Cibyra Parva, for distinction' sake from
the preceding. Ptolemy annexes it to Cilicia Tra-
chea. Its site corresponds to that of the modern Ibu-
rar. (Strab., 667.)

two years under pretence of his health, which he tells us was yet unequal to the exertion of pleading. (De Clar., Or., 91.) At Athens he met with T. Pomponius Atticus, whom he had formerly known at school, and there renewed with him a friendship which lasted through life, in spite of the change of interest and esHere too he attended the lectures trangement of affection so commonly attendant on turbulent times. of Antiochus, who, under the name of an Academic, taught the dogmatic doctrines of Plato and the Stoics. Though Cicero at first evinced considerable dislike of his philosophical views, he seems afterward to have adopted the sentiments of the Old Academy, which they much resembled, and not until late in life to have relapsed into the sceptical tenets of his earlier instructer Philo. (Warburton, Div. Leg., lib. 3, sec. 3.-Vossius, de Nat. Log., c. 8, sec. 22.) After visitCICERO, MARCUS TULLIUS, a celebrated Roman ora- ing the principal philosophers and rhetoricians of Asia, tor, was born at Arpinum, the native place of Marius, he returned at the age of thirty to Rome, so strengthB.C. 107, the same year which gave birth to Pom- ened and improved both in bodily and mental powers, pey the Great. His family was ancient, and of eques- that he soon eclipsed in speaking all his competitors trian rank, but had never taken part in public affairs at for public favour. So popular a talent speedily gained Rome, though both his father and grandfather were him the suffrage of the commons; and being sent to persons of consideration in the part of Italy in which Sicily as quæstor, at a time when the metropolis itself they resided. (Or. contra. Rull., 2, 1.) His father, was visited with a scarcity of corn, he acquitted himbeing a man of cultivated mind, determined to educate self in that delicate situation with so much success as his two sons, Marcus and Quintus, on an enlarged to supply the clamorous wants of the people without and liberal plan, and to fit them for the prospect of oppressing the province from which the provisions those public employments which his own weak state were raised. (Or. pro Planc., 26.-In Verr., 5, 14.) of health incapacitated him from seeking. Marcus, Returning thence with greater honours than had ever the elder of the two, soon displayed indications of a before been decreed to a Roman governor, he gainsuperior mind, and we are told that his schoolfellows ed for himself still farther the esteem of the Sicilcarried home such accounts of his extraordinary parts, ians, by undertaking his celebrated prosecution of Verthat their parents often visited the school for the sake res; who, though defended by the influence of the of seeing a youth who gave so much promise of future Metelli and the eloquence of Hortensius, was driver. eminence. (Plut. in Vit.) One of his earliest mas- in despair into voluntary exile. Five years after his ters was the poet Archias, whom he defended after- quæstorship.Cicero was elected ædile. Though posward in his consular year; and under his instruction sessed of only a moderate fortune, he nevertheless, he made such proficiency as to compose a poem, with the good sense and taste which mark his charac. though yet a boy, on the fable of Glaucus, which had ter, was enabled, while holding this expensive office, formed the subject of one of the tragedies of Eschylus. to preserve in his domestic arrangements the dignity Soon after he assumed the manly gown, he was placed of a literary and public man, without any of the osunder the care of Scævola, the celebrated lawyer, tentation of magnificence which often distinguished the whom he introduces so beautifully into several of his candidate for popular applause. (Or. pro Dom., 58.) philosophical dialogues; and in no long time he gained After the customary interval of two years, he was rea thorough knowledge of the laws and political insti- turned at the head of the list as prætor (Or. in About the tutions of his country. (De Clar., Or., 29.) This was Pis., 1), and now made his first appearance on the about the time of the Social War; and, according to rostra in support of the Manilian law. the Roman custom, which made it a necessary part same time, also, he defended Cluentius. of education to learn the military art by actual service, ration of his prætorship, he refused to accept a foreign Cicero took the opportunity of serving a campaign province, the usual reward of that magistracy; but, under the consul Pompeius Strabo, father of Pompey having the consulship full in view, and relying on his the Great. Returning to pursuits more congenial to interest with Caesar and Pompey, he allowed nothing his natural taste, he commenced the study of philoso- to divert him from that career of glory for which he But his chief atten- now believed himself to be destined. Having sucphy under Philo the Academic. tion was reserved for oratory, to which he applied him- ceeded at length in attaining to the high office of self with the assistance of Molo, the first rhetorician which he was in quest, he signalized his consulship of the day; while Diodotus, the Stoic, exercised him by crushing the conspiracy of Catiline; and the Ro in the argumentative subtleties for which the disciples mans hailed him, on the discovery and overthrow of At the same time he this nefarious plot, as the Father and Deliverer of his of Zeno were so celebrated. declaimed daily in Greek and Latin with some young country. His consulate was succeeded by the return noblemen, who were competitors in the same race of of Pompey from the East, and the establishment of honours with himself.-Cicero was the first Roman the First Triumvirate; which, disappointing his hopes who found his way to the highest dignities of the state of political greatness, induced him to resume his fo with no other recommendation than his powers of elo-rensic and literary occupations. From these he was quence and his merits as a civil magistrate. (Or. in Cat., 3, 6.-In Pis., 3.- Pro Sull., 30.-Pro Dom., 37.-De Harusp. Resp., 23.-Ep. ad Fam., 15, 4.) The first cause of importance which he undertook was the defence of Roscius Amerinus, in which he distinguished himself by his courageous defence of his client, who had been accused of parricide by Chrysogonus, a favourite of Sylla's. This obliging him, however, according to Plutarch, to leave Rome from prudential motives, the power of Sylla being at that time paramount, he employed his time in travelling for

At the expi

called off, after an interval of four years, by the threatening measures of Clodius, who at length succeeded in driving him into exile. This event, which, considering the circumstances connected with it, was one of the most glorious of his life, filled him with the ut most distress and despondency. Its history is as follows. Clodius, Cicero's bitter enemy, had caused a law to be renewed, declaring every one guilty of trea son who ordered the execution of a Roman citizen before the people had condemned him. The blow was aimed against Cicero, on account of the punish

ment he had caused to be inflicted, by the authority After the battle of Pharsalia and the flight of Pompey, of the senate, upon the accomplices of Catiline. The he refused to take the command of some troops then illustrious ex-consul put on mourning, and appeared under the orders of Cato, but returned to Italy, which in public, accompanied by the equites and many young was governed by Antony, the representative of Cæsar. patricians, demanding the protection of the people. His return was attended with several unpleasant cirClodius, however, at the head of his armed adherents, cumstances, until the conqueror wrote to him, and soon insulted them repeatedly, and ventured even to be- after received him in the most friendly spirit. Cicero siege the senate house. Cicero, upon this, went into now devoted himself entirely to literature and philosovoluntary exile. His conduct, however, in this re- phy. The state of his private affairs, however, involvverse of fortune, showed anything but the firmness of ed him in great embarrassment. A large sum, which a man of true spirit. He wandered about Greece, be- he had advanced to Pompey, had impoverished him, and wailing his miserable condition, refusing the consola- he was forced to stand indebted to Atticus for present tions which his friends attempted to administer, and assistance. These difficulties led him to a step which shunning the pul lic honours with which the Greek it has been customary to regard with great severity; cities were eager to load him. (Ep. ad Att., lib. 3. the divorce of his wife Terentia, though he was then -Ep. ad Fam., lib. 14.—Or. pro Sext., 22.-Pro in his 62d year, and his marriage with his rich ward Dom, 36.) He ultimately took refuge in Thessa- Publilia, who was of an age disproportionate to his lonica with Plancus. Clodius, in the mean time, pro- own. Yet, in reviewing this proceeding, we must cured new decrees, in consequence of which Cicero's not adopt the modern standard of propriety, forgetful country seats were torn down, and a temple of Free- of the character of an age which reconciled actions dom built on the site of his house at Rome. His wife even of moral turpitude with a reputation for honour and children were also exposed to ill usage from his and virtue. Terentia was a woman of a most imperiimbittered persecutors. A favourable change, how- ous and violent temper, and (what is more to the ever, soon took place in the minds of his countrymen. purpose) had in no slight degree contributed to his The audacity of Clodius became insupportable to all: present embarrassment by her extravagance in the Pompey encouraged Cicero's friends to get him re- management of his private affairs. By her he had called to Rome, and the senate also declared that it two children, a son born the year before his conwould not attend to any business until the decree sulship, and a daughter, whose loss he was now fated which ordered his banishment was revoked. Through to experience. To Tullia he was tenderly attached, the zeal of the consul Lentulus, and at the proposition not only from the excellence of her disposition, but of several tribunes, the decree of recall passed the as- from her love of polite literature; and her death tore sembly of the people in the following year, in spite from him, as he so pathetically laments to Sulpicius, of a bloody tumult, in which Cicero's brother Quintus the only comfort which the course of public events was dangerously wounded; and the orator returned had left him. (Ep. ad Fam., 4, 14.) His distress to his native country, after an absence of ten months, was increased by the unfeeling conduct of Publilia, and was received with every mark of honour. The whom he soon divorced for testifying joy at the death senate met him at the city gates, and his entry re- of her step-daughter. It was on this occasion that he sembled a triumph. The attacks of Clodius, though wrote his treatise "On Consolation," with a view to they could now do no harm, were immediately re- mitigate the anguish of his sufferings. His friends newed, until Cicero was freed from the insults of this were assiduous in their attentions; and Cæsar, who turbulent demagogue by the hand of Milo, whom he had treated him with the utmost kindness on his reafterward, in a public trial for the deed, unsuccess- turn from Egypt, signified the respect he bore his charfully defended. (Vid. Milo.) Five years after his acter by sending a letter of condolence from Spain, return from exile he received the government of Cili- where the remains of the Pompeian party still encia, in consequence of Pompey's law, which obliged gaged him. But no attentions, however considerate, those senators of consular or prætorian rank who had could soften Cicero's vexation at seeing the country never held any foreign command, to divide the vacant he had formerly saved by his exertions, now subjected provinces among them. Cicero conducted a war, to the tyranny of one master. His speeches, indeed, while in this office, with good success against the for Marcellus and Ligarius exhibit traces of inconsistplundering tribes of the mountain districts of Cilicia, ency; but for the most part he retired from public and was greeted by his soldiers with the title of Im- business, and gave himself up to the composition of perator. He resigned his command, and returned to those works which, while they mitigated his political Italy, about the close of the year 703, intending to sorrows, have secured his literary celebrity. The asprefer his claim to a triumph; but the troubles which sassination of Cæsar, which took place in the followwere just then commencing between Cæsar and Pom-ing year, once more brought him on the stage of pubpey prevented him from obtaining one. His return lic affairs. He hoped to regain great political influhome was followed by earnest endeavours to recon- ence but Antony took Cæsar's place, and all that cile Pompey with Cæsar, and by very spirited beha- was left Cicero to do was to compose those admiraviour when Cæsar required his presence in the senate. ble orations against him which are known by the name But this independent temper was only transient; and of Philippics, and are equally distinguished for eloat no period of his public life did he display such mis-quence and patriotism. His enmity towards Antony erable vacillation as at the opening of the civil war. His conduct, in this respect. had been faulty enough before, for he then vacillated between the several members of the first triumvirate, defending Vatinius in order to please Cæsar, and his bitter political enemy Gabinius to ingratiate himself with Pompey. Now, however, we find him first accepting a commission from the republic; then courting Cæsar; next, on Pompey's sailing for Greece, resolving to follow him thither; presently determining to stand neuter; then bent on retiring to the Pompeians in Sicily; and when, after all, he had joined their camp in Greece, discovering such timidity and discontent as to draw from Pompey the bitter reproof, "cupo ad hostes Cicero transeat, ut nos timeat." (Macrobius, Sat., 2, 3.)

induced him to favour the young Octavius, although the pretended moderation of the latter by no means deceived him. With him originated all the energetic resolutions of the senate in favour of the war which the consuls and the young Cæsar were conducting against Antony in the name of the republic; and for a time the prospect seemed to brighten. At last, however, Octavius having possessed himself of the consulship, and having formed an alliance with Antony and Lepidus, Cicero became convinced that liberty was at an end. At Tusculum, whither he had retired with his brother and nephew, he learned that Octavius had basely deserted him, and that his name, at Antony's demand, had been added to the list of the proscribed. He repaired, in a state of indecision, to

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