tended that she should once more enjoy a share of that authority in the government, of which, during the regency of Antipater, it had been necessary to deprive her. Polysperchon had soon reason, however, to repent of this resolution; for Olympias, still untaught by events, and thirsting for revenge, returned to the Macedonian capital only to gratify her worst feelings and disturb the tranquillity of the state. A powerful rivalry soon arose between the two queens, Olympias and Eurydice; and the former, having acquired a momentary ascendency over the affections of the Macedonian soldiers, drove out Eurydice and Aridæus, and afterward, on getting possession of their persons, caused them both to be despatched by assassins. But the rage of the inexorable Olympias was not supported by an adequate force. The presence of Cassander in Macedonia, who flew thither to avenge the death of Eurydice, struck terror into the aged queen, and she shut herself up in the city of Pydna. After a long resistance, this strongly-fortified place fell before the arms of Cassander; Olympias was put to death, and the victor married Thessalonica, half-sister of the conqueror of Asia, who, with other members of the royal family, had, by the capture of the place, fallen into his hands. The nuptials were celebrated in a style of the greatest magnificence, and the active governor chose to mark his accession to power by building Cassandrea on the Isthmus of Pallene, and by restoring to its ancient splendour the city of Thebes. Aspiring now to the throne, he found powerful opponents in Antigonus and Ptolemy, who, in order to strengthen their side, proclaimed liberty for the whole of Greece, and this

acid, which is obtained from it in union with soda, that | mother of Alexander. into Macedon, where it was inis, in the state of Glauber's salt. (Gmelin, Voyage, vol. 3, p. 267.) The northwest winds are said to diminish the saltness, and to increase the bitterness of .the water. The powerful phosphorescence of the thick, muddy waters of the Caspian Sea is remarked by Pallas. The black colour which they assume at a great distance from the shore is nothing more than the effect of the depth, and owing to the same optical cause which makes the ocean appear comparatively dark and blue instead of light green, in deep places where the colour of the bottom does not intermix itself with the natural colour of the water.-It would serve little purpose to enumerate all the names which have been given to this sea. The "Caspian" is one of the most ancient. This name is not only common to the Greek and Latin languages, but enters into the Georgian, the Armenian, and the Syriac. (Wahl, Asien, vol. 1, p. 679, seqq.) The Jewish Rabbis and Peritsol call it the Dead Sea. The Turkish denomination for it, Khoosghoon Denghizi, is variously translated, but no probable etymology is assigned. The Byzantine and Arabian writers call it the Sea of Khozares, after a powerful nation; and the Russian annalists knew it in the tenth century under the name of Gualenskoi or Shwalenskoi-More, after the Shawlis a Slavonian people, not much known, that lived on the Wolga. The name given to this sea in the ZendaVesta is, however, worthy of remark. That apocryphal work, which is full of old traditions, calls this sea Tchekaêt Daéti, or "the great water of the judgment." Perhaps Noah's flood, as described in some of the Eastern traditions, might have a connexion with a sinking of the earth, which had destroyed the inhab-country became, in consequence, the theatre of war, itants of an extensive country, and converted it into this remarkable sea. (Malte-Brun, Geogr., vol. 2, p. 130, Brussels ed.)

CASSANDER, son of Antipater. A short time before the death of Alexander, he crossed over into Asia for the purpose of defending his father against the accusations of Olympias; and when, after the decease of the Macedonian monarch, Antipater was appointed regent, his son received from him the command of the Asiatic horse. The ambitious views, however, of the young Cassander, induced his parent to bequeath to him no share in the government, and Cassander, therefore, wishing to annul the arrangements which his father had made at his death, gave Nicanor the command of the garrison in the Munychia at Athens, by means of secret orders, before the news of his father's death could reach that city, and thus secured for himself an important stronghold. He then crossed over into Asia, in order to secure the co-operation of Ptolemy and Antigonus. During his absence, Polysperchon sent an army into Attica, and issued a decree for the re-establishment of democracy in all the Grecian cities, in place of the aristocratic forms of government which had been brought in by Alexander. This edict had all the effect which Polysperchon intended, and the cities of Greece drove out, for the most part, those individuals who were at the head of their affairs. The Athenians, likewise, put many persons to death, in the number of whom was the celebrated Phocion, but could not dislodge the garrison from the Munychia. Cassander, having returned with troops and vessels, which ho had obtained from Antigonus, seized upon the Piraus, and compelled the Athenians to submit once more to an aristocratic rule, at the head of which he placed Demetrius the Phalerean. He then went into Macedonia, where he had many partisans, and conferred the reins of government on Eurydice and her husband; and, after this, returning to the Peloponnesus, he drew many of the Grecian cities over to his side. While he was occupied with the siege of Tegea in Arcadia, Polysperchon, in order to check the influence of Eurydice, advised the recall of Olympias, the

which was terminated at last by a treaty, B.C. 311.
The conditions of this treaty were, that, until Alexan-
der, son of Roxana, should be of age, Cassander was
to hold the government of Macedon and Greece, Ly-
simachus that of Thrace, Ptolemy that of Egypt, and
Antigonus that of Asia.
The death of the young
Alexander was, without doubt, one of the secret con-
ditions of this league, for Cassander caused him to be
put to death not long after, together with his mother
Roxana, and no attempt was made by the other con-
tracting parties to punish him for the deed. Polysper-
chon, moreover, influenced by Cassander, put to death
Hercules, son of Alexander and Barsine. The race
of Alexander being thus extinct, Antigonus assumed
the title of king, in which he was imitated by Ptol-
emy, Lysimachus, and Cassander, and these three soon
found themselves obliged to unite their forces against
Antigonus and his son Demetrius, who aimed at no-
thing less than reuniting under their sway all the
countries once ruled over by Alexander. Antigonus
having lost the battle of Ipsus, B.C. 301, and Deme-
trius being too feeble in point of resources to make any
effectual opposition, Cassander found himself the tran-
quil possessor of Macedonia. He did not, however,
long enjoy the fruits of his labours, but died, B.C. 298,
of a dropsy which ended in the morbus pedicularis.
He had by Thessalonica three sons, Philip, Antipater,
and Alexander. It is difficult to form a true opinion
of the character of this prince. The Greek writers
have not done justice to him, since they regarded both
him and his father Antipater as foes to popular free-
dom. We cannot refuse him, however, the praise of
valour and of considerable talents for government.
He loved letters, had copied Homer with his own
hand, and could repeat from memory a large number
of his verses. Still, however, no excuse can be found
for his conduct towards the mother and the children of
Alexander. A grasping ambition alone was the in-
citing cause to these acts of bloodshed.-His son
Philip succeeded him, but died the same year with his
father. Antipater, his second son, put to death his
own mother, for having, after the decease of Cassan-

der, favoured, as he thought, the interests of his broth- | employed, and held in high estimation. He was a naer Alexander. The latter, with the aid of Demetrius, tive of Scyllacium in Magna Græcia, and descended son of Antigonus, made war upon him for this; but, when about to become reconciled to him, was treacherously slain by Demetrius, his own ally; and Antipater was afterward put to death by his own father-inlaw Lysimachus. (Justin, 13, 4, 18.--Id., 14, 6, 12. -Id., 15, 2, 3.—Id., 16, 2, 1, &c.-Diod. Sic., 18, 3, seqq.-Id., 18, 54, &c.)

of a noble family, his father having held a considerable office under Odoacer. In 514 he was sole consul, and afterward commander of the prætorian guard and. secretary of state. It is in this latter capacity that he composed his twelve books of public epistles, or Variarum (Epistolarum), libri xii., consisting of various writings and ordinances prepared by him from time to time for the Ostrogothie kings. They are the most valuable of his works now extant, and give a considerable and curious insight into the history and manners of the age in which he lived. The style is considered by Gibbon to be quaint and declamatory, while Tiraboschi characterizes it as possessing a barance in office, he was the patron of learning and of learned men, till the impending dissolution of the Gothic kingdom in Italy induced him to retire from public life to the enjoyment of a learned leisure in a monastery of his own founding near his native place. Here he divided his time between the study of the Scriptures and other religious writings, and the construction of various mechanical contrivances, such as water-clocks, sundials, curious lamps, &c., and is said to have lived in his retirement till 575, when his decease took place in his ninety-sixth year. His writings were of various descriptions; all his orations, highly celebrated in their day, are lost; as also is his history of the Goths, comprised in twelve books, an abridgment of which by Jornandes is, however, still extant. His devotional tracts, consisting of a "Commentary on the Psalms," "Institutions of Divine and Human Letters," "Commentaries on the Epistles of St. Paul," "On the Acts and Apostolical Epistles, and the Apocalypse," &c., were composed by him in his seclusion. The editions of his works that we possess are that of Gravius, Colon., 1650, 8vo; that of Garet, Rotom., 1679, 8vo; that of Lebrun des Marettes, Paris, 1685, 2 vols. 4to; and that of L. A. Muratori, Veron., 1736, fol. The last is the best. (Schöll, Hist. Rom. Lit., vol. 3, p. 174 and 328-Id., vol. 4, p. 114.—Bähr, Gesch. Rom. Lit., vol. 1, p. 602.)

CASSANDRA, daughter of Priam and Hecuba. She was beloved by Apollo, and promised to listen to his addresses, provided he would grant her the knowledge of futurity. This knowledge she obtained: but she was regardless of her promise; and Apollo, in re venge, determined that no credit should ever be attached to her predictions. Hence her warnings re-barous elegance. During the whole of his continuspecting the downfall of Troy, and the subsequent misfortunes of the race, were disregarded by her countrymen. When Troy was taken, she fled for shelter to the temple of Minerva, but was exposed there to the brutality of Ajax, the son of Oileus. In the division of the spoils she fell to the share of Agamemnon, and was assassinated with him on his return to Mycena. (Vid. Agamemnon.) Cassandra was called Priameis from her father; and Alexandra, as the sister of Alexander or Paris.-Lord Bacon considers this fable to have been invented to express the inefficacy of unseasonable advice: "For they," affirms the great philosopher, "who are conceited, stubborn, or untractable, and listen not to the instructions of Apollo, the god of harmony, so as to learn and observe the modulations and measures of affairs, the sharps and flats of discourse, the difference between judicious and vulgar cars, and the proper times of speech and silence, let them be ever so intelligent, and ever so frank of their advice, or their counsels ever so good and just, yet all their endeavours, either of persuasion or force, are of little significance, and rather hasten the ruin of those whom they advise. But at last, when the calamitous event has made the sufferers feel the effects of their neglect, they too late reverence their advisers as deep, foreseeing, and faithful prophets." (Apollod., 3, 12, 5.-Virg., En., 2, 324.-Bacon, De Sap. Vet. 1.)

CASSANDREA, a city of Macedonia, on the neck of the peninsula of Pallene. It was founded by Cassander, and he transferred to it the inhabitants of several neighbouring towns, and, among others, those of Potidæa, and the remnant of the population of Olynthus. Cassandrea is said to have surpassed all the Macedonian cities in opulence and splendour. (Diod. Sic., 19, 52.) Philip, the son of Demetrius, made use of the place as his principal naval arsenal, and at one time caused a hundred galleys to be constructed in the docks of that port. (Liv., 28, 8.) Pliny speaks of Cassandrea as a Roman colony (4, 10). From Procopius we learn that this city at length fell a prey to the Huns, who left scarcely a vestige of it remaining. (Bell. Pers., 2, 4.-Id., de Edif., 4, 3.-Niceph. Greg., vol. 1, p. 150.-Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 1, p. 246.)

CASSIOPE and CASSIEPEA, I. wife of Cepheus, king of Ethiopia, and mother of Andromeda. Having of fended the Nereids by her presumption in setting herself before them as regarded beauty, Neptune, sympathizing with the anger of the sea-maidens, laid waste the realms of Cepheus by an inundation and a seamonster. (Vid. Andromeda.)-Cassiope was made a constellation after death in the southern hemisphere. It consists of thirteen stars, and is placed over the head of Cepheus. The Arabians compare the stars of this constellation to an open hand. (Ideler, Sternnamen, p. 81.)—The form Cassiopea, which is sometimes given to the Latin name, is incorrect. It ought to be Cassiepea, from the Greek Kaooiencia. (Scaliger, ad Manil., p. 459.—Bultmann in Ideler's Sternnamen, p. 308.)-II. A harbour of Epirus, to the south of Onchesmus, and probably so called from CASSIA LEX was enacted by Cassius Longinus, its vicinity to a port and town of the same name A.U.C. 649. By it no man condemned by the peo- in the island of Corcyra.-III. A town and harbour ple or deprived of military power was permitted to en- of Corcyra, to the north of the city of Corcyra, at the ter the senate-house.—II. Another, that the people distance of about 120 stadia. (Cic., Ep. ad Fam., should vote by ballot.-III. Another, called also fru-16, 9) It probably derived its name from a temple mentaria, proposed by the consuls C. Cassius and M. Terentius, and hence sometimes termed Lex Cassia Terentia. It ordained, as is thought, that five modii of grain should be given monthly to each of the poorer citizens, &c. It was passed A.U.C. 680. (Sall., "Hist. frag., p. 974, ed. Cort.)

CASSIODORUS, Magnus Aurelius, an eminent statesman, orator, historian, and divine, who flourished during the greater part of the sixth century, under Theodoric, Amalasontha and her sons Athalaric, Theodorus and Vitiges, by all of whom he was honourably

sacred to Jupiter Casius or Cassius. (Plin., 4, 12.— Procop. Goth., 4, 22.) Suetonius relates (Vit. Ner., 22), that Nero, in a voyage made to this island, sang in public at the altar of this god. Ptolemy also no. tices Cassiope (p. 85), and near it a cape of the same name. Its vestiges remain on the spot which is still called Santa Maria di Cassopo. The promontory is the Cape di Santa Caterina. (Cramer's Ancient Greece, vol. 1, p. 162)

CASSITERIDES, islands in the Western Ocean, where tin was found, supposed to be the Scilly Islands of the

now Montcassel, northeast of St. Omer in France. VII. CASTELLUM TURENTINUM, in Picenum, now Torre Segura. (Pomp. in Cic., Epist. ad Fam., 8, 12.)

CASTHANA, a town of Thessaly, on the coast of Magnesia, northwest of the promontory Sepias. It is noticed by Herodotus in his account of the terrible storm experienced by the fleet of Xerxes off this coast (7, 183.-Compare Strab., 443.-Plin., 4, 9). The name is written by Steph. Byz. Kaoravaia (Castanea), and in the Etymol. Mag. Kaoravia (Castania. --Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 1, p. 424).

66

Leda differs little from Leto, and may therefore be regarded as darkness: she is married to Tyndarus, a name which seems to be of a family of words relating to light, flame, or heat. (Possibly there may have been a Pelasgic word akin to the German zünden, and the Anglo-Saxon tendan, whence the English tinder. The children of Leda by Tyndarus or Jupiter, that is by Jupiter-Tyndarus, "the bright god," are Helena, brightness" (Eλa, light), Castor, “adorner” (kúlw, "to adorn" or "regulate"), and Polydeukes," dewful" (devw, devкns). In Helena, therefore, we have only another name for Selene, or the moon; the Adorner is a very appropriate name for the day, whose light adorns all nature; and nothing can be more apparent than the suitableness of Dewful to the night. It is rather curious, that, in the legend, Helena is connected by birth with Polydeukes rather than with Castor.Another explanation of this myth views the brothers as sun and moon, to which their names and the form of the legend are equally well adapted. Welcker, who adopts this latter opinion, makes Castor the same as Astor (Starry), and Polydeukes the same as Polyleukes (Lightful). This latter etymology will remind us at once of the Latin form of the name Pol-lux, and is much better, as far as we can hazard an opinion, than the other derivation for the name Polydeukes given above. (Welcker, Tril., p. 130, 220, 271.) To proceed to the other names of the legend, Idas and Lynceus, that is, Sight and Light, are the children of Aphareus or Phareus, that is, the Shiner (púw); and the two daughters of Leucippus or White-horsed (an epithet of the Dioscuri, Eurip., Hel., 639), are Phœbe, Brightness, and Hilaera, Joyful (ihapóç), which last is an epithet given to the moon by Empedocles. (Plut., de Fac. in Orb. Lunæ, 2.) In the Cypria they were called the daughters of Apollo. (Pausan., 3, 16, 1.)

CASTOR and POLLUX (in Greek Kúorwp and IIoλvôɛńką), twin brothers, the latter the son of Leda and Jupiter, the former of Leda and Tyndarus. (Vid. Leda.) The earliest exploit of these twin heroes, who were born at Amycle in Laconia, was the recovery of their sister Helen from the hands of Theseus, whose mother Athra they dragged into captivity. They took part in all the great undertakings of their time, were at the Calydonian hunt, accompanied Hercules against the Amazons, sailed in the Argo, and aided Peleus to storm Iolcos. Pollux was the most distinguished pugilist, Castor the most experienced charioteer of his day. Mercury bestowed on them the fleet steeds Phlogius and Harpagus, the offspring of the harpy Podarge: Juno gave them the swift Xanthus and Cyllarus. The brothers fell into the very same offence which they had punished in Theseus. Being invited to the wedding-feast by their cousins Idas and Lynceus, the sons of Aphareus, who had married their cousins Phoebe and Hilaëra, the daughters of Leucippus, they became enamoured of the brides, and carried them off. Idas and his brother pursued them. In the conflict Castor fell by the spear of Idas; and Pollux, aided by the thunder of Jove, slew the two sons of Aphareus. (Schol. ad Il., 3, That these were original divinities is demonstrated 243.-Schol. ad Pind, Nem., 10, 112.-Hygin., fab., by their being objects of worship. The Dioscuri were 80.) Another account says, that the fe heroes also called Anaces ("Avakɛç) or kings, and had their joined to drive off the herds of the Arcadians. luas temples and statues. They were represented generwas appointed to divide the booty. He killed an ox; ally as two youths on horseback, each holding a spear and, dividing it into four parts, said that one half cf in his hand, and their heads surmounted by a circular the prey should fall to him who had first eaten his cap, fabled by the poets to be a half egg, in allusion share, and the remainder to him who next finished. to the circumstances of their birth, but referring eviHe then quickly devoured his own and his brother's dently to the cosmogonical egg, and forming an addipart, and drove the whole berd to Messene. The tional proof, if one were needed, of the truth of our Dioscuri (Atóσkovpoi, Jove's sons), as Castor and his explanation of the legend. The Dioscuri were also brother were called, made war on Messene. Driving identified with the Cabiri, and were regarded as the off all the cattle which they met, they laid themselves protectors of ships in tempests (Eurip., Orest., 1653. in ambush in a hollow tree. But Lynceus, whose-Id., Hel., 1663); and the St. Elmo's fire, as it is vision could penetrate the trees and the rocks, assended the top of Taygetus, and, looking over on the Peloponnesus, saw them there; whereupon he and his brother hastened to attack them. Castor fell

by the spear of Idas; Pollux pursued the slayers, and, Coming up with them at the tomb of their father Aphaeus, was struck by them in the breast with the pillar Delonging to it. Unretarded by the blow, he rushed n, and killed Lynceus with his spear; and Jupiter, at the same moment, struck Idas with a thunderbolt. Schol. ad Pind., Nem., 10, 114.-Tzetz. ad Lyophr., 511.) Pollux was inconsolable for the loss f his brother; and Jupiter, on his prayer, gave him uis choice of being taken up himself to Olympus, and sharing the honours of Mars and Minerva, or of dividing them with his brother, and for them to live day and day alternately in heaven and under the earth. Pollux chose the latter, and divided his immortality with Castor. (Pind., Nem., 10, 103, seqq.-Schol. ad Theocrit., 22, 137, seqq.-Apollod., 3, 11, 2.-Tzetz. ad Lycophr., 5, 11-Ovid, Fusti, 5, 699, seqq.)--The remarkable circumstance of the two brothers living and dying alternately, leads at once to a suspicion of their being personifications of natural powers and objects. This is confirmed by the names in the myth, all of which seem to refer to light or its opposite. Thus,

now termed, was ascribed to them. They were also said to be the constellation of the twins. (Keightley's Mythology, p. 430, seqq.)

CASTRA, a term of frequent occurrence in ancient geography, and generally indicating the site of some Roman or other encampment. From the winter quarters of the Romans, strongly fortified according to established custom, and presenting the appearance of cit ies in miniature, many towns in Europe are supposed to have had their origin; in England particularly those, the names of which end in cester or chester.-The principal places indicated by the term castra are as follows: I. CASTRA AD Garumnam, now Castres, on the Garonne in France.-II. CASTRA CONSTANTINA, now Coutances, on the river Soulle in Normandy.III. CASTRA CORNELIA, a city of Africa, in the neighbourhood of Utica, where Scipio pitched his first camp in the second Punic war. It is now Gellah. (Plin., 5, 4.-Mela, 1, 7.)-IV. CASTRA EXPLORATORUM, now Netherby, on the borders of Scotland.-V. CASTRA HANNIBALIS, now Castellete in Calabria.

VI. CASTRA INDÆORUM, a place in Lower Egypt, now Jehudieh-VII. CASTRA TRAJANA, a place in Dacia, now Ribnik in Wallachia.

CASTRUM, a term of frequent occurrence in ancient geography. The principal places thus designated are

as follows: I. CASTRUM NOVUM, a town of Etruria, south of Centum Cellæ, and situate on the coast. It is now Santa Marinella. D'Anville, however, makes it correspond to the modern Torre Chiarruccia.-II. CATHEA, a country of Asia, the precise situation CASTRUM INUI, a place on the coast of Latium, between of which is doubtful. Mannert places it northeast of Antium and Ardea. (Virg., Æn., 6, 775.) Accord- the Malli, in the vicinity of the Hydraotes. The chief ing to Livy (1, 5), Inuus was the same with Pan.-III. town was Sangala. Diodorus Siculus calls the people CASTRUM LUCII, now Chalus in France, in the de- Catheri. Thevenot is supposed to allude to their department of Upper Vienne. Here Richard I. of Eng-scendants under the name of Cattry, that is, the Kuttry land died.-IV. CASTRUM SEDUNUM, now Sion in Switzerland. It was also called Civitas Sedunorum. (Casaub. ad Suet., Vit. Aug., c. 58.)