jealous of their nautical skill and enterprising spirit, casa in Punic, as Servus informs us (ad En., 1, 290). sought to dispossess them. A severe action accord- The derivation of Pliny is generally considered the best. ingly took place in the Sea of Sardinia, between the The nobility of the Julian family was so ancient and Phocæans and the combined fleet of the latter powers, so illustrious, that, even after it obtained the imperial in which the former gained the day; but it was such dignity, it needed not the exaggeration of flatterers to a victory as left them little room for exultation, they exalt it. Within thirty years after the commencement having lost several of their ships, and the rest being of the republic, we find the name of C. Julius on the nearly all disabled. The Agylleans, who appear to list of consuls, and the same person, or a relation of have constituted the principal force of the Tyrrhenians, the same name, is said to have been one of the Deon their return home landed their prisoners and barba- cemviri by whom the laws of the twelve tables were rously stoned them to death; for which act of cruelty compiled. It numbered, after this, several other indithey were soon visited by a strange calamity. It was viduals who attained to the offices of prætor and conobserved, that all the living creatures which approach- sul, one of whom, L. Julius Cæsar, distinguished himed the spot where the Phocæans had been murdered, self in the Italian war by a great victory over the were immediately seized with convulsive distortions Samnites, and was afterward murdered by order of and paralytic affections of the limbs. On consulting Marius. Another, of the same line, C. Julius Cæsar, the oracle at Delphi, to learn how they might expiate the brother of Lucius, was eminent as a public speaker their offence, the Agylleans were commanded to cele- for his wit and pleasantry, and perished together with brate the obsequies of the dead, and to hold games in the former when Marius and Cinna first assumed the their honour; which order, the historian informs us, was government.-The most illustrious of the name, howpunctually attended to up to his time. We learn also ever, was C. JULIUS CAESAR, born July (Quintilis) from Strabo (220), that the Agylleans enjoyed a great 10th, B.C. 100. His father was C. Julius Cæsar, a reputation for justice among the Greeks; for, though man of prætorian rank, and is recorded by Pliny (7, very powerful, and able to send out large fleets and nu- 53) as a remarkable instance of sudden death, he merous armies, they always abstained from piracy, to having expired suddenly one morning at Pisa while which the other Tyrrhenian cities were much addicted. dressing himself. C. Cæsar married Aurelia, of the According to Dionysius, the Romans were first en- family of Aurelius Cotta, and of these parents was gaged in hostilities with Cære under the reign of Tar- born the subject of the present sketch. From his earquin the Elder, and subsequently under Servius Tul- liest boyhood Cæsar discovered extraordinary talents. lius, by whom a treaty was concluded between the He had a penetrating intellect, a remarkably strong two states (3, 28). Long after, when Rome had memory, and a lively imagination; was indefatigable in been taken by the Gauls, the inhabitants of Care ren- business, and able, as we are told by Pliny, to read, dered the former city an important service, by receiv-write, hear, and dictate, at one and the same time, ing their priests and vestals, and defeating the Gauls from four to seven different letters. When the party on their return through the Sabine territory; on which of Marius had gained the ascendancy at Rome, Cinna occasion they recovered the gold with which Rome gave his daughter Cornelia in marriage to Cæsar. is said to have purchased its liberation. This is a cu- The latter was also farther connected with the popular rious fact, and not mentioned by any historian; but party through the marriage of Julia, his father's sister, it agrees very well with the account which Polybius with the elder Marius; yet, although thus doubly obgives us of the retreat of the Gauls (1, 6). In re- noxious to the victorious side, he refused to comply furn for this assistance, the Romans requited the C- with the commands of Sylla, to divorce his wife; and rites by declaring them the public guests of Rome, and being exposed, in consequence, to his resentment, he admitting them, though not in full, to the rights en- fled from Rome, and baffled all attempts upon his life, joyed by her citizens. They were made citizens, but partly by concealing himself, and partly by bribing without the right of voting; whence the phrases, in the officers sent to kill him, till Sylla was prevailed Caritum tabulas referre aliquem, "to deprive one of upon, according to Suetonius, to spare him at the enhis right of voting," and Carite cera digni, "worth- treaty of some common friends. A story was afterless persons," in reference to citizens of Rome, since ward common, that Sylla did not pardon without great what would be an honour to the people of Care would reluctance; and that he told those who sued in his be a punishment to a native Roman citizen. (Cra- behalf, that in Cæsar there were many Mariuses. Had mer's Ancient Italy, vol. 1, p. 207.)-"It is a weak he indeed thought so, his was not a temper to have notion of Strabo," observes Niebuhr, "that the Ro- yielded to any supplications to save him; nor would mans had acted ungratefully in not admitting the Ca- any considerations have induced him, to exempt from rites to a higher franchise. It was not in their power destruction one from whom he had apprehended so to do so, unless the Carites themselves preferred re- great a danger. After this, the young Cæsar pronouncing the independence of their state, receiving ceeded to the court of Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, their landed property from the republic, according to and on leaving this monarch, of whose intimacy with the Roman law, and forming a new tribe; and this him a scandalous anecdote is recorded, he went to M. they were certainly far from wishing at that time, as Municius Thermus, then prætor in Asia, who intrustfortune had been more favourable to them in the Gal- ed him with the command of the fleet that was to lic war than to Rome; if, indeed, the Roman citizen-blockade Mytilene. In the execution of this trust ship were really conferred on the Carites at this time, and not considerably earlier, in the flourishing days of the ancient Agylla." (Roman History, vol. 1, p. 403, Walter's transl.) In the first edition of his work (vol. 1, p. 193, seqq., in notis), Niebuhr starts the bold hypothesis, that Care was the parent city of Rome. In the second edition, however (Cambridge transl.), this theory is silently withdrawn.

CÆSAR, a surname given to the Julian family at Rome, for which various etymologies have been assigned. Pliny (7, 9) informs us, that the first who bore the name was so called, quod caso mortuæ matris utero natus fuerit. Festus derives it from cæsaries, cum qua e matris ventre prodierit. Others, because the fist of the name slew an elephant, which was called

Cæsar distinguished himself highly, although but twenty-two years of age. He next visited Rhodes, and studied eloquence for some time under Apollonius Molo, from whom Cicero, about the same period, was also receiving instruction. (Sueton., Jul., c. 4.--Cic., de Clar. Or., c. 91.) On the way thither he was taken by pirates, and was detained by them till he collected from some of the neighbouring cities fifty talents for his ransom. No sooner, however, was he released, than he procured a small naval force, and set out on his own sole authority in pursuit of them. He overtook the pirates, and captured some of their vessels, which he brought back to the coast of Asia with a number of prisoners. He then sent word of his success to the proconsul of Asia, requesting him

and to remove him farther from the city, added to his government the province of Transalpine Gaul, and voted him another legion. After marrying Calpurnia, the daughter of Lucius Calpurnius Piso (his third wife had been divorced by him in consequence of the affair of Clodius), Cæsar repaired to Gaul, in nine years reduced the whole country, crossed the Rhine twice, passed over twice into Britain, defeated the natives of this island in two battles, and compelled them to give hostages. The senate had continued his government in Gaul for another period of five years; while Pompey was to have the command of Spain, and Crassus that of Syria, Egypt, and Macedonia, for five years also. The death of Crassus, however, in his unfortunate campaign against the Parthians, dissolved the triumvirate. About this same time, too, occurred the death of Julia, and thus the tie which had bound Pompey so ations any longer existed to allay the jealousies and animosities which political disputes might enkindle between them. The power of Pompey, meanwhile, kept continually on the increase; and Cæsar, on his part, used every exertion to strengthen his own resources, and enlarge the number of his party and friends. Cæsar converted Gaul into a Roman province, and kept governing it with policy and kindness. Pompey, on his side, elevated Cæsar's enemies to the consulship, and prevailed upon the senate to pass a decree requiring Cæsar to leave his army, and resign his government of Gaul. The latter declared his willingness to obey this mandate, if Pompey also would lay aside his own authority, and descend to the ranks of a private citizen. The proposition was unheeded, and a second decree followed, commanding Cæsar to resign his offices and military power within a specified period, or be declared an enemy to his country, and at the same time appointing Pompey commander-in-chief of the armies of the republic. An open rupture now ensued. The decree of the senate was negatived by two of the tribunes, Antony and Cassius (Cas., Bell. Civ., 1, 2, seq.); the senate, on the other hand, had recourse to the exercise of their highest prerogative, and directed the consuls for the time being "to provide for the safety of the republic." This resolution was entered on the journals of the senate on the seventh of January; and no sooner was it passed, than Antony and Cassius, together with Curio, professing to believe their lives in danger, fled in disguise from Rome, and hastened to escape to Cæsar, who was then at Ravenna, waiting for the result of his proposition to the senate. (Cic., Ep. ad Fam., 16, 11.Plut., Vit. Cæs., c. 31.) It appears, from one of Cicero's letters (ad Att., 7, 9), written a few days before the first of January, that he had calculated on such an event as the flight of the tribunes, and on its affording Cæsar a pretext for commencing his rebellion. When it had actually taken place, the senate, well aware of the consequences to which it would lead, began to make preparations for defence. Italy was divided into districts, each of which was to be under the command of a separate officer; soldiers were ordered to be everywhere levied, money was voted from the treasury to be placed at Pompey's disposal, and the two Gauls, which Caesar had just been summoned to resign, were bestowed on L. Domitius and M. Considius Nonianus. When Casar was informed of the flight of the tribunes and of the subsequent resolutions of the senate, he assembled his soldiers, expatiated on the violence offered to the tribunitian character, and on the attempts of his enemies to despoil himself of his dignity, by forcing him to resign his province before the term of his command was expired. He found his troops perfectly disposed to follow him, crossed the Rubicon, and, seizing on Ariminum, the first town of importance without the limits of his province, thus declared himself in open rebel

to order the execution of the captives; but that officer being more inclined to have them sold as slaves, Cæsar crucified them all without loss of time, before the proconsul's pleasure was officially known. Such conduct was not likely to recommend him to those in authority; and we are told that on several other occasions, he wished to act for himself (Vell. Paterc., 2, 67.-Sueton., Jul., 4), and even to take part in the war which was now renewed with Mithradates, without any commission from the government, and without submitting himself to any of the regular officers of the republic. These early instances of his lawless spirit are recorded with admiration by some of his historians, as affording proofs of vigour and greatness of mind. He now returned to Rome, and became, in succession, military tribune, quæstor, and ædile. At the same time, he had the address to win the favour of the people by affability, by splendid entertainments, and pub-closely to Cæsar was broken, and no private considerlic shows; and, trusting to his popularity, he ventured to erect again the statues of Marius, whose memory was hated by the senate and patricians. In the conspiracy of Catiline he certainly had a secret part; and his speech in the senate, on the question of their punishment, was regarded by many as an actual proof of this, for he insisted that death, by the Roman constitution, was an illegal punishment, and that the property merely of the conspirators should be confiscated, and they themselves condemned to perpetual imprisonment. Soon after this he was chosen pontifex maximus, and was about to go as governor to Farther Spain; but his creditors refusing to let him depart, Crassus became his security in the enormous sum of eight hundred and thirty talents. It was on his journey to Spain that the remarkable expression fell from his lips, on seeing a miserable village by the way, "that he would rather be first there than second at Rome." When he entered on the government of this province, he displayed the same ability, and the same unscrupulous waste of human lives for the purposes of his ambition, which distinguished his subsequent career. In order to retrieve his fortune, to gain a military reputation, and to entitle himself to the honour of a triumph, he attacked some of the native tribes on the most frivolous pretences (Dio Cass., 37, 52), and thus enriched himself and his army, and gained the credit of a successful general by the plunder and massacre of these poor barbarians. On his return to Rome he paid off his numerous and heavy debts, and, in order to gain the consulship, brought about a reconciliation between Pompey and Crassus, whose enmity had divided Rome into two great parties. He succeeded in his design, and that famous coalition was eventually formed between Pompey, Crassus, and himself, which is known in Roman history by the name of the First Triumvirate. (Vid. Triumvir.) Supported by such powerful assistants, in addition to his own popularity, Cæsar was elected consul, with M. Calpurnius Bibulus, confirmed the measures of Pompey, and procured the passage of a law for the distribution of certain lands among the poorer class of citizens. This, of course, brought him high popularity. With Pompey he formed a still more intimate connexion, by giving him his daughter Julia in marriage; and the favour of the equestrian order was gained by releasing them from a disadvantageous contract for the revenues of Asia, a step which the senate had refused to take in their behalf; and thus the affections of a powerful body of men were alienated from the aristocracy at the very time when their assistance was most needful. When the year of his consulship had expired, Cæsar obtained from the people, by the Vatinian law, the government of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum, for five years, with an army of three legions. As the law then stood, the disposal of such commands was vested in the senate alone; but that body, wishing, no doubt, to increase the weight of Cæsar's employments abroad,

lion against the state. At Ariminum he met the fugi- | head. tive tribunes, introduced them without delay to his army, and, working upon the feelings of the latter by a powerful harangue, soon made himself master of Italy without striking a blow, as Pompey, taken by surprise through the suddenness of Cæsar's hostile operations, and destitute of troops to meet him, had left the city with the senators, consuls, and other magistrates. Levying an army thereupon, with the treasures of the state, Cæsar hastened into Spain, which he reduced to submission, without coming to a pitched battle with Pompey's generals. He next conquered Massilia (Marseille), and then, returning to Rome, was appointed dictator by the prætor M. Emilius Lepidus. Meanwhile Pompey had collected an army in the East, and his rival hastened to Epirus, with five legions, by land. After various operations, which our limits prevent us from detailing, the rival commanders met in the plain of Pharsalia, and Cæsar gained a decided victory. Pompey, fleeing to Egypt, was basely murdered there, while his more fortunate antagonist, hastening likewise to the East, came just in time to give an honourable burial to the body of his opponent. After settling the differences between Ptolemy and his sister Cleopatra, Cæsar marched against Pharna-ceiving them without rising from his seat when they ces, king of Pontus, son of Mithradates the Great, and finished the war so rapidly as to have announced the result to his friends at home in those well-known words, "veni, vidi, vici" (“I have come, I have seen, I have conquered"), so descriptive of the celerity of his movements. Returning to Rome, after having thus composed the affairs of the East, Cæsar granted an amnesty to all the followers of Pompey, and gained by his clemency a strong hold on the good feelings of the people. He had been appointed, meanwhile, consul for five years, dictator for a year, and tribune for life. When his dictatorship had expired, he caused himself to be chosen consul again, and, without changing the ancient forms of government, ruled with almost unlimited authority. Then came the campaign in Africa, where the friends of the republic had gathered under the standard of Cato and other leaders. Crossing over against them, Cæsar engaged in several conflicts against these new antagonists, and at last completely defeated them at the battle of Thapsus. Fresh honours awaited him at Rome. The dictatorship was again bestowed on him for the space of ten years, he was appointed censor for life, and his statue was placed by that of Jupiter in the capitol.-From the date of Caesar's return from Africa to the period of his assassination, there is an interval of somewhat less than two years, and even of this short time nine months were engrossed by the renewal of the war in Spain, which obliged him to leave Rome once more, and contend for the security of his power against the sons of Pompey at the point of the sword. (Vid. Munda.) He enjoyed the sovereignty, therefore, which he had so dearly purchased, during little more than one single year; from the end of July, A.U.C. 707, to the middle of the winter, a period of between seven and eight months, owing to the reformation of the calendar which he introduced during this interval; and again from October, 708, to the Ides of March in the following spring. When Cæsar again entered Rome after conquering the sons of Pompey, he was made perpetual dictator, and received the title of imperator with powers of sovereignty. The appellation also of "Father of his Country" was voted him; the month in which he was born, and which had till then been called Quintilis, was now named Julius (July), in honour of him; money was stamped with his image, and a guard of senators and citizens of equestrian rank was appointed for the security of his person. He was allowed also to wear, on all public festivals, the dress worn by victorious generals at their triumphs, and at all times to have a crown of laurel on his

He continued, meanwhile, to conciliate hus enemies, and to heap favours on his friends. Largesses were also distributed among the populace, shows of various kinds were exhibited, and everything, in fact, was done to call off their attention from the utter prostration of their liberties which had so successfully been achieved. The gross and impious flattery of the senate now reached its height. The stat ues of Cæsar were ordered to be carried, along with those of the gods, in the processions of the circus; temples and altars were dedicated to him, and priests were appointed to superintend his worship. These things he received with a vanity which affords a striking contrast to the contemptuous pride of Sylla. Cæsar took a pleasure in every token of homage, and in contemplating with childish delight the gaudy honours with which he was invested. It was a part of the prize which he had coveted, and which he had committed so many crimes to gain; nor did the possession of real power seem to give him greater delight, than the enjoyment of these forced, and, therefore, worthless flatteries.-We now come to the closing scene, his assassination. Various causes tended to hurry this event. Cæsar had given offence to the senate by rewaited upon him to communicate the decrees which they had passed in honour of him. He had given equal offence to numbers in the state by assuming so openly not only the patronage of the ordinary offices, but the power of bestowing them in an unprecedented manner, in order to suit his own policy: On one occasion, too, as he was sitting in the rostra, Marc Antony offered him a royal diadem. He refused it, however, and his refusal drew shouts of applause from the people. The next morning his statues were adorned with diadems. The tribunes of the people took them off, and imprisoned the persons who had done the act, but they were deposed from their office by Cæsar. These and other acts, that declared but too plainly the ambitious feelings of the man, and his hankering after the bauble of royalty, gave rise to a conspiracy, of which Caius Cassius was the prime mover. Cæsar, having no suspicion of the danger which threatened him, was forming new projects. He resolved to subdue the Parthians, and then to conquer all Scythia from the Caucasus to Gaul. His friends gave out, that, according to the Sibylline books, the Parthians would be conquered only by a king, and the plan proposed therefore was, that Cæsar should retain the title of dictator with regard to Italy, but should be saluted with that of king in all the conquered countries. For this purpose a meeting of the senate was appointed for the 15th (the Ides) of March; and this was the day fixed upon by the conspirators for the execution of their plot. Cæsar, it is said, had been often warned by the augurs to beware of the Ides of March (Plut., in Vit., c. 63. —Sueton., in Vit., c. 81), and these predictions had probably wrought upon the mind of his wife Calpurnia, so that, on the night which preceded that dreaded day, her rest was broken by feverish dreams, and in the morning her impression of fear was so strong that she earnestly besought her husband not to stir from the house. He himself, we are told, felt a little unwell, and being thus more ready to be infected by superstitious fears, was inclined to comply with Calpurnia's wishes. His delay in attending the senate alarmed the conspirators; Decimus Brutus was sent to call on him, and, overcome by his persuasions, he proceeded to the capitol. On his way thither, Artemidorus of Cnidus, a Greek sophist, who had been admitted into the houses of some of the conspirators, and had there become ac quainted with some facts that excited his suspicions, approached him with a written statement of the information which he had obtained, and, putting it into his hand, begged him to read it instantly, as it was of the last importance. Cæsar, it is said, tried to look at it, but was

Disquisitions, p. 185, seqq)-The question, when Cæsar wrote his commentaries, has been frequently agitated. Guischard (Mem. Crit., 539) is in favour of the common opinion, that they were written shortly after the events themselves, 1. Because Cicero, in his Brutus, a work written before the civil war, speaks of the commentaries of Cæsar. 2. Because, if Cæsar had written his commentaries after the civil war was ended, there would not have been a lacuna after the sixth book, to be supplied by Hirtius. 3. Because Cæsar had little leisure at his disposal after the civil war.-Cæsar wrote other books, especially one on the analogies of the Latin tongue. A few fragments remain, which do not impress us with a very high opinion of this performance. It was entitled De Analogia, and was written, as we are informed by Suetonius, while Cæsar was crossing the Alps, on his return to the army from Hither Gaul, where he had been to attend the assembly of that province. (Suet, Jul, 56.) In this book, the great principle established by

prevented by the crowd that pressed around him as he tioned in the commentaries, and must in all probabilpassed along, and he still held it in his hand when he en-ity have read them in the journal. (Malkin's Classical tered the senate-house. When Cæsar had taken his seat, the conspirators gathered more closely around him, and L. Tillius Cimber approached him as if to offer some petition. Cæsar seemed unwilling to grant it, and appeared impatient of farther importunity, when Cimber took hold of his robe and pulled it down from his shoulders. This was the signal for attack. The dagger of Casca took the lead, and Cæsar at first attempted to force his way through the circle that surrounded him. But when all the conspirators rushed upon him, and were so eager to share in his death that they wounded one another in the confusion of the moment; and when, moreover, he saw Junius Brutus among the number, Cæsar drew his robe closely around him, and, having covered his face, fell without a struggle or a groan. He received three-and-twenty wounds, and it was observed that the blood, as it streamed from them, bathed the pedestal of Pompey's statue. No sooner was the murder finished, than Brutus, raising his gory dagger, turned round to the assembled senate, and calling on Cicero by name, congratulated him on the re-him was, that the proper choice of words formed the covery of their country's liberty. But to preserve or- foundation of eloquence (Cicero, Brut., 72); and he der was hopeless, and the senators fled in dismay. (For cautioned authors and public speakers to avoid as a an account of the events immediately subsequent, vid. rock every unusual word or unwonted expression. Antonius and Brutus.)-Cæsar died in the 56th year of (Aul. Gell., 7, 9.)-There were also several useful and his age. In his intellectual character he deserves the important works accomplished under the eye and dihighest rank among the men of his age; as a general, rection of Cæsar, such as the graphic survey of the moreover, it is needless to pronounce his eulogy. But whole Roman empire. Extensive as their conquests if we turn from his intellectual to his moral physiogno- had been, the Romans hitherto had done almost nomy, the whole range of history can hardly furnish a thing for geography, considered as a science. Their picture of greater deformity. Besides being exces- knowledge was confined to the countries they had subsively addicted to gross sensualities, never did any man dued, and these they only regarded in the view of the occasion so large an amount of human misery with so levies they could furnish and the taxations they could little provocation. In his campaigns in Gaul he is endure. Cæsar was the first who formed more exalted said to have destroyed one million of men in battle views. Ethicus, a writer of the fourth century, in(Plut., Vit. Cæs., c. 15.-Compare Plin., 7, 25), and forms us, in the preface to his Cosmographia, that this to have made prisoners a million more, many of whom great man obtained a senatus consultum, by which a were destined to perish as gladiators, and all were torn geometrical survey and measurement of the whole from their country and reduced to slavery. The Roman empire was committed to three geometers. slaughter which he occasioned in the civil wars cannot Zenodoxus was charged with the eastern, Polycletus, be computed; nor can we estimate the degree of suf- with the southern, and Theodotus with the northern fering caused in every part of the empire by his spoli- provinces. Their scientific labour was immediately ations and confiscations, and by the various acts of op- commenced, but was not completed till more than pression which he tolerated in his followers.-Was, thirty years after the death of him with whom the unthen, his assassination a lawful act? Certainly not. dertaking had originated. The information which The act of assassination is in itself so hateful, and in- Cæsar had received from the astronomer Sosigenes volves in it so much of dissimulation and treachery, in Egypt, enabled him to alter and amend the Rothat, whatever allowance may be made for the perpe- man calendar. The computation he adopted has trators, when we consider the moral ignorance of the been explained by Scaliger and Gassendi, and it has times in which they lived, their conduct must never be been since maintained, with little farther alteration than spoken of without open condemnation. (Encyc. Me- that of the style introduced by Pope Gregory. When tropol., Div. 3, vol 2, p. 156, seqq.-Encyc. Amer., we consider the imperfections of all mathematical invol. 2, p. 379.)-As an historical writer Cæsar has struments in the time of Cæsar, and the total want of been compared to Xenophon. Simplicity is the char- telescopes, we cannot but view with admiration, not acteristic of both, though in Cæsar perhaps it borders unmixed with astonishment, that comprehensive genius on severity. We have from the pen of the Roman which, in the infancy of science, could surmount such commander seven books of commentaries on the Gal- difficulties, and arrange a system that experienced but lic war, and three of the civil contest. His style is re- a trifling derangement in the course of sixteen centumarkable for clearness and ease, and its most distin-ries.-Although Caesar wrote with his own hand only guishing characteristic is its perfect equality of expression. It has been affirmed, by some critics, that Casar did not write the three books of the civil war, and even that Suetonius was the author of the seven books on the Gallic war. But Vossius has vindicated Casar's title to the authorship of the Commentaries as they stand in the editions, though he does not vouch for his accuracy or veracity on all occasions. The opinion that the extant commentaries are not Cæsar's may possibly have arisen from a confusion of circumstances between two works. It is believed that he wrote Ephemerides, containing a journal of his life; but they are lost. Servius quotes them, as does also Plutarch. Frontinus likewise seems to refer to them, since he relates many of Cæsar's stratagems not men

seven books of the Gallic campaigns, and the history of the civil wars till the death of his great rival, it seems highly probable that he revised the last or eighth book of the Gallic war, and communicated information for the history of the Alexandrean and African expeditions, which are now usually published along with his own commentaries, and may be considered as their supplement or continuation. The author of these works, which nearly complete the interesting story of the campaigns of Cæsar, was Aulus Hirtius, one of his most zealous followers and most confidential friends. The eighth book of the Gallic war contains the account of the renewal of the contest by the states of Gaul after the surrender of Alesia, and of the different battles that ensued, at most of which Hirtius was per

sonally present, till the final pacification, when Cæsar, port by Herod, who called it Cæsarea in honour of learning the designs which were forming against him Augustus; and it now began to receive Jews among at Rome, set out for Italy. Cæsar, in the conclusion its inhabitants. Frequent contentions hence arose, of the third book of the civil war, mentions the com- in consequence of the diversity of faiths that prevailed mencement of the Alexandrean. Hirtius was not within its walls. Here the Roman governor resided, personally present at the succeeding events of this and a Roman garrison was continually kept. VespaEgyptian contest, in which Cæsar was involved with sian, after the Jewish war, settled a Roman colony in the generals of Ptolemy, nor during his rapid cam-it, with the additional title of Colonia prima Flavia. paigns in Pontus against Pharnaces, and against the (Ulpian, 1, de cens.) In later times it became the remains of the Pompeian party in Africa, where they capital of Palæstina Prima. This city is frequently had assembled under Scipio, and, being supported by mentioned in the New Testament. Here King AgripJuba, still presented a formidable appearance. He pa was smitten, for neglecting to give God the praise collected, however, the leading events from the con- when the people loaded him with flattery. Here Corversation of Cæsar, and the officers who were engaged nelius, the centurion, was baptized; and also Philip, in these campaigns. He has obviously imitated the the deacon, with his four daughters; and here Agabus, style of his master; and the resemblance which he has the prophet, foretold to Paul that he would be bound at happily attained, has given an appearance of unity and Jerusalem. (Acts, 8, 10.) The modern name of the consistence to the whole series of these well-written place is Kaisarich. It was the birthplace of Eusebiand authentic memoirs. It appears that Hirtius car- us.-II. The capital of Mauritania Cæsariensis, and a ried down the history even to the death of Cæsar: for place of some note in the time of the Roman emperin his preface addressed to Balbus, he says that he had ors. It was originally called Iol, but was beautified brought down what was left imperfect from the trans- at a subsequent period by Juba, who made it his resiactions at Alexandrea to the end, not of the civil dis-dence, and changed its name to Cæsarea, in honour of sensions, to a termination of which there was no pros- Augustus. This city was situate on the coast, to the pect, but of the life of Cæsar. This latter part, how-west of Saldæ, and, according to D'Anville, its reever, of the Commentaries of Hirtius, has been lost. It seems now to be generally acknowledged that he was not the author of the book De Bello Hispanico, which relates Cæsar's second campaign in Spain, undertaken against young Cneius Pompey, who, having assembled, in the ulterior province of that country, those of his father's party who had survived the disasters in Thessaly and Africa, and being joined by some of the native states, presented a formidable resistance to the power of Cæsar, till his hopes were terminated by the decisive battle of Munda. Dodwell, indeed, in his Dissertation De auctore Belli Gallici, &c., main-rich. This city, as Strabo reports, was subject to great tains, that it was originally written by Hirtius, but was interpolated by Julius Celsus, a Constantinopolitan writer of the sixth or seventh century. Vossius, however, whose opinion is the one more commonly received, attributes it to Caius Oppius, who wrote the Lives of Illustrious Captains, and also a book to prove that the Egyptian Casarion was not the son of Cæsar. (Dunlop's Roman Literature, vol. 2, p. 191, seqq.) The best editions of Cæsar's Commentaries are, the magnificent one by Dr. Clarke, fol., Lond., 1712; that of Cambridge, with a Greek translation, 4to, 1727; that of Oudendorp, 2 vols. 4to, L. Bat., 1737; that of the Elzevirs, 8vo, L. Bat., 1635; that of Oberlinus, Lips., 1819, 8vo; and that of Achaintre and Lemaire, Paris, 4 vols. 8vo, 1819-22.-II. The name Cæsar became a title of honour for the Roman emperors, commencing with Augustus, and at a later period designated also the presumptive heirs to the empire. (Vid. Augustus.) III. The twelve Caesars, as they are styled in history, were Julius Cæsar, Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula," went up to fight against Leshem (or Laish, Judg., Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, Domitian. These succeeded each other in the order which we have mentioned. The true line of the Cæsars, however, terminated in Nero.

CÆSARAUGUSTA, a town of Hispania Tarraconensis, now Saragossa, so called from its founder, Augustus Cæsar, by whom it was built on the banks of the river Iberus, on the site of the ancient city Subduba. It was the birthplace of the poet Prudentius. (Isidor., Hisp. Etymol., 15, 1.-Mannert, Geogr., vol. 1, p. 428.)

mains are to be found at the modern harbour of Vacur. (Plin., 5, 2.-Mela, 1, 6-Strab., 571.)—III. Ad Argæum, the capital of Cappadocia, called by this name in the reign of Tiberius, previously Mazaca. It was situate at the foot of Mount Argæus, as its name indicates, and was a place of great antiquity, its foundation having even been ascribed by some writers to Mesech, the son of Japhet. (Joseph., Ant. Jud., 1, 6.) Philostorgius, however, says it was first called Maza, from Mosoch, a Cappadocian chief, and afterward Mazaca. (Strab., 530.) The modern name is Kaisainconveniences, being ill supplied with water, and destitute of fortifications. The surrounding country was also unproductive, consisting of a dry, sandy plain, with several volcanic pits for the space of many stadia around the town. And yet it is worthy of remark, that in modern times, travellers are struck with the great quantity of vegetables offered for sale in the market of Kaisarieh, and it is said that there is no part of Asia Minor which surpasses the neighbourhood for the quality and variety of its fruits. (Kinneir's Travels, p. 103.-Cramer's Asia Minor, vol. 2, p. 118.)—IV. Philippi, a town on the northern confines of Palestine, in the district of Trachonitis, at the foot of Mount Paneus, and near the springs of the Jordan. It was also called Leshem, Laish, Dan, and Paneas. The name Paneas is supposed to have been given it by the Phoenicians. The appellation of Dan was given to it by the tribe of that name, because the portion assigned to them was "too little for them," and they therefore

18, 29), and took it," calling it " Dan, after the name of Dan, their father." (Josh., 19, 47.) Eusebius and Jerome distinguish Dan from Paneas as if they were different places, though near each other; but most writers consider them as one place, and even Jerome himself, on Ezek., 48, says, that Dan or Leshem was afterward called Paneas. Philip, the tetrarch, rebuilt it, or, at least, embellished and enlarged it, and named it Cæsarea, in honour of the Emperor Tiberius; and afterward Agrippa, in compliment to Nero, called it Neronias. According to Burckhardt, the site is now called Banias. (Plin., 5, 15.-Joseph. Ant. Jud., 18, 3.-Id., Bell. Jud., 1, 16.-Sozom., 3, 21.)—V. Insula, now the isle of Jersey.

CESAREA, I. the principal city of Samaria, situate on the coast, and anciently called Turris Stratonis, "Strato's tower." Who this Strato was is not clearly ascertained. In the preface to the Novels it is stated that he came from Greece and founded this place; an CESARION, the reputed son of Julius Cæsar and event which took place probably under the reign of Se- Cleopatra. Plutarch calls him the son of Cæsar, but leucus, the first king of Syria. The first inhabitants Dio Cassius (47, 31) throws doubt on his paternity. were Syrians and Greeks. (Joseph., Ant. Jud., 20, He was put to death by Augustus. (Sueton., Vit. 6.) It was subsequently made a magnificent city and | Jul., c. 52.-Id., Vit. Aug., 17.)