of the Egyptians being found with hair of that colour; and hence arose the fable of human sacrifices by Busiris. In fact, expressly adds this writer, Busiris is not the name of a king, but means, in the Egyptian language, "the tomb of Osiris." We have here, then, a of government seems to have been sometimes Lyons with Typhon, that is, red-haired. (Diod. Sic., 1, 88.) (Lugdunum), and sometimes Geneva.-By their old They sacrificed also cattle of this same hue, a circumconstitution, they had kings, called hendinos, whom stance that reminds us of the red heifer mentioned in they chose and deposed at their pleasure. If any great scripture (Numb., 19, 2.-Compare Spencer, de Lecalamity befell them, as a failure of the crops, a pesti-gibus Hebr. ritual., 15, p. 489, ed. Pfaff-Witsius, lence, or a defeat, the king was made responsible for Egyptiac., 2, 8.) Now, continues Diodorus, these it, and his throne was given to another, from whom red-haired persons were almost always strangers, few they hoped for better times. Before their conversion to Christianity (which happened after their settlement in Gaul), they had a high-priest called Sinestus, whose person was sacred, and whose office was for life. The trial by combat even then existed among them, and was regarded as an appeal to the judgment of God.-solution of the whole legend. The feltered Hercules Continually endeavouring to extend their limits, they became engaged in a war with the Franks, by whom they were at last completely subdued, under the son of Clovis, after Clovis himself had taken Lyons. They still preserved their constitution, laws, and customs for a time. But the dignity of king was soon abolished, and, under the Carlovingians, the kingdom was divided into provinces, which, from time to time, shook off their dependance. Their later movements belong to modern history. (Claud, Mamert. Paneg. Maximian., c. 5.-Hadrian, Vales. Rer. Franc., 1, p. 50.Jornand., de Regnor. Success, p. 54.-Id. de reb. Get., p. 98.-Paul. Warnefr. de gest. Longob., 3, 3.Encyclop. Americ., vol. 2, p. 329.) is the sun in the winter season, enfeebled and in the hands of his enemy. He is about to become the prey of the tomb (the victim of Busiris); but, on a sudden, resumes his strength, breaks his fetters, and triumphs over gloom and darkness.-But why sacrifice victims of the peculiar colour mentioned above? Possibly we have here a traditionary allusion to the shepherd race, the red-haired, blue-eyed strangers, who once overran the land, and whose cruel devastations well entitled them to be identified, in a degree, with Typhon, the spirit of all evil.-Jablonski (Voc. Egypt., p. 54) and Zoega (de Obelisc., p. 288) explain the word Busiris through the Coptic Be-Ousiri, i. e., "the tomb of Osiris," in accordance with the remark of Diodorus, mentioned above. Champollion, on the other hand, writes the word Pousiri, and sees in it only the name of Osiris, preceded by the article. He condemns, at the same time, as altogether absurd, the etymology given by many of the Greeks, namely, Boug and 'Ooipis. (Com. pare Steph. Byz., s. v.) Agreeing with him on this latter point, we must nevertheless regard the explanation of Diodorus, which he also rejects, as entitled to great weight. Plutarch, moreover (de Is. et Os., c. 21), says expressly, that Bovoipis is the same as Tapócipis, which he derives, in consequence, from rúpos, "a tomb," and "Ooipic. (Creuzer, Symbolik, vol. 1, p. 353, seqq.—Guigniaut, vol. 1, pt. 2, p. 848, seqq.)-II. There were three or four cities of this name in ancient Egypt, the most celebrated of which is placed by Herodotus in the centre of the Delta. It had a magnificent temple of Isis. (Herod., 2, 59.— Compare Strab., 802.—Diod. Sic., 1, 85, et 88.— Wesseling, ad Diod., l. c.-Champollion, l'Egypte sous les Pharaons, vol. 1, p. 365; vol. 2, p. 42, &c.) It is worthy of remark, that these were all sepulchral cities. (Guigniaut, l. c.) BUSIRIS, a king of Egypt, son of Neptune and Lysianassa daughter of Epaphus, or (as Plutarch states, from the Samian Agatho), of Neptune and Anippe, daughter of the Nile. (Plut., Parall., p. 317.) This king, in consequence of an oracle, offered up strangers on the altar of Jupiter: for Egypt having been afflicted with a dearth for nine years, a native of Cyprus, named Thrasius, a great soothsayer, came thither, and said that it would cease if they sacrificed a stranger every year to Jupiter. Busiris sacrificed the prophet himself first of all, and then continued the practice. When Hercules, in the course of his wanderings, came into Egypt, he was seized and dragged to the altar; but he burst his bonds, and slew Busiris, his son Amphidamas, and his herald Chalbes. (Apollod., 2, 5, 11.)-Now who was this Busiris? We have here a question to which the ancients themselves gave very different answers. Isocrates, in defending the memory of the Egyptian monarch, pretends that he lived two centuries before Perseus, and, consequently, long anterior to Hercules. (Isocr., Busir., c. 15) Other writers have made mention of from three to five kings of Egypt bearing this same name. (Heyne, ad Apollod., l. c.-Sturz., ad Pherecyd., p. 141.-Compare Theon., Progymn, c. 6.-Syncell., Chron., p. 152.-Interpret. ad Diod., 1, 88.) Herodotus contradicts the common tradition, and seeks to free the Egyptians from the reproach of having offered up human victims. He may be right as regards the times immediately preceding the period when he himself flourished, since it is well known that king Amasis abolished human sacrifices at Heliopolis, and great changes took place also after the Persian conquest. Still, however, numerous scenes and images delineated in the temples and sepulchres of Egypt, speak but too plainly for the existence of this frightful custom in earlier times. (Costaz, Descript. de l'Eg., vol. 1, c. 9, p. 401-Guignaut, planche xliv. Compare Manetho, ap. Porphyr. de Abstin., 2, 55.— Plut., de Is. et Os., p. 556, ed Wyttenb.-Plut, de Malign. Herod., p. 857.) According to Eratosthenes, as cited by Strabo (802), Egypt never had a king BUTHROTUM, a town of Epirus, opposite Corcyra. named Busiris, but the whole superstructure of fable It was originally a small village, but was subsequently erected upon this name has no other origin than the fortified by the Romans, in order to keep in subjection odious inhospitality of the inhabitants of the Busiritic the inhabitants of the interior, and became a place of nome. We have here, without doubt, a glimpse of the great consequence. Virgil makes Helenus to have truth, which is fully revealed to us by Diodorus Siculus. reigned here. (En., 3, 295, seqq.) Stephanus ByAccording to this writer, or, rather, the tradition col-zantinus derives the name from an ox (Bouc) having lected by him, the kings of Egypt immolated in earlier broken loose at this place when about being sacrificed. times, on the tomb of Osiris, men of the same colour (Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 1, p. 107.) BUTES, I. one of the descendants of Amycus, king of the Bebryces, very expert in the combat of the cestus. He was one of the Argonauts, and leaped overboard in order to swim to the island of the Sirens, but Venus caught him up and conveyed him to Lilybæum in Sicily. Here she became by him the mother of Eryx. (Apoll. R., 4, 912.- Virg., En., 5, 372.)—II. A son of Pandion king of Athens, and brother of Erechtheus. The father divided his offices between his two sons, giving Erechtheus his kingdom, and Butes the priesthood of Minerva and Neptune Erichthonius. Butes married Chthonia, the daughter of his brother, and the sacerdotal family of the Butadæ deduced their lineage from him. (Apollod., 3, 15, 1.)-III. An armourbearer to Anchises, and afterward to Ascanius. Apollo assumed his shape when he descended from heaven to encourage Ascanius to fight. Butes was killed by Turnus. (Virg., En., 9, 647; 12, 632.) BUTUS, a city of Egypt, at the Sebennytic mouth | adjacent country. The meaning of the myth would apof the Nile, or, rather, on the southern shore of the Butus Lacus, the outlet from which into the sea is formed by the Ostium Sebennyticum. It was.famed for its temples of Apollo, Diana, and Latona, that is, of Egyptian deities supposed to coincide with these. The temple of Latona had a celebrated oracle connected with it, and the goddess had also an annual festival here, which was one of the most numerously attended in Egypt. The shrine of the goddess, according to Herodotus, was of one solid stone, having equal sides, each side forty cubits long. It was brought from a quarry in the isle of Phila, near the cataracts, on rafts, for the distance of 200 leagues, to its destined station, and seems to have been the heaviest weight ever moved by human power. It employed many thousand men for three years in its transportation. The modern Kom-Kasir is thought to correspond to the ancient city. Schlichthorst, however, gives the modern name of the ancient site as El-Bucib. (Herod., 2, 59, et 63.-Plin., 5, 10.) BYBLUS, a town of Phoenicia, nearly midway between Tripolis and Berytus. Stephanus of Byzantium calls it a very ancient city, but this expression suits better an earlier place, called Palæobyblus. The name Byblus itself shows very plainly that the founders of the place were Greeks, and merely took the inhabitants of Palæobyblus to reside with them. The influence of Grecian customs here is also shown by the worship of Adonis, to whom a temple was consecrated in this city, and the river called after whom was in the neighbourhood of this place. Byblus did not lie directly on the coast, but on a height at some distance from it. The modern name is Esbile, or, according to the Frank pronunciation, Dschibile. The appellation Zebelet occurs already in Phocas. (Joh. Phoc., c. 5.-Mannert, Geogr., vol. 6, pt. 1, p. 383.) BYRSA, the citadel of Carthage. The story commonly told about the origin of its name is as follows: When Dido came to Africa she bought of the inhabitants as much land as could be encompassed by a bull's hide. After the agreement, she cut the hide in small thongs, and enclosed a large piece of territory, on which she built a citadel, which she called Byrsa (ẞúpoa, a hide). This, however, is a mere fable of the Greeks. The name is derived from the Punic term Basra, "a fortification," "a citadel," the sibilant being transposed. (Gesen., Phoen. Mon., p. 420.Compare Heyne, ad Virg., En., 1, 367.-Valck., Opusc., vol. 1, p. 103.) pear to be, that a Thracian prince, having united himself in marriage with a Grecian female, founded the city, with the aid of a Greek colony, and gave the place a name derived from his own. (Scymn., 715. —Euseb., Chron. Ol., 30, 2.-Steph. Byz., s. v.-Eustath., ad Dion. Perieg., 803.-Dionys. Byzant., p. 5.—Geogr. Gr. Min., vol. 3.) The early commerce of Megara was directed principally to the shores of the Propontis, and this people had founded Chalcedon seventeen years before Byzantium, and Selymbria even prior to Chalcedon. (Herod., 4, 144.-Scymn., 714.) When, however, their trade was extended still farther to the north, and had reached the shores of the Euxine, the harbour of Chalcedon sank in importance, and a commercial station was required on the opposite side of the strait. This station was Byzantium. The appellation of "blind men," given to the Chalcedonians by the Persian general Megabyzus (Herod., 4, 144), for having overlooked the superior site where Byzantium was afterward founded, does not therefore appear to have been well merited. As long as Chalcedon was the northernmost point reached by the commerce of Megara, its situation was preferable to any offered by the opposite side of the Bosporus, because the current on this latter side runs down from the north more strongly than it does on the side of Chalcedon, and the harbour of this city, therefore, is more accessible to vessels coming from the south. On the other hand Byzantium was far superior to Chalcedon for the northern trade, since the current that set in strongly from the Euxine carried vessels directly into the harbour of Byzantium, but prevented their approach to Chalcedon in a straight course. (Polyb., 4, 43.) The harbour of Byzantium was peculiarly favoured by nature, being deep, capacious, and sheltered from every storm. The current of the Euxine swept vessels into it without the aid of sail or oars, and it also brought thither various kinds of fish that afforded a lucrative article of commerce. From its shape, and the rich advantages thus connected with it, the harbour of Byzantium obtained the name of Chrysoceras, or "the Golden Horn," which was also applied to the promontory or neck of land that contributed to form it. (Plin., 4, 11.— Amm. Marcell., 22, 8.) And yet, notwithstanding all these advantages, Byzantium remained for a long time an inconsiderable place. The declining commerce of Megara, and the character which Byzantium still sustained of being a half-barbarian place, may serve to account for this. At a subsequent period the Milesians BYZACIUM, a district of Africa Propria, lying above sent hither a strong colony, and so altered for the betthe Syrtis Minor. The Carthaginians were the pos-ter the aspect of things, that they are regarded by some sessors of it, and for a long time allowed no Roman ancient writers as the founders of the city itself. vessels to navigate the coast below the Hermean (Vell. Paterc., 2, 15.) When, at a later day, the inpromontory, fearful lest their enemies might be tempt-surrection of the Asiatic Greeks had been crushed by ed to seize what formed the granary of Carthage. This district was originally distinct from what was termed Emporia, which lay below it. Afterward, however, they became united into one, and the territory of Byzacium was extended upward as far as the river Bagradas, thus forming the Byzacena Provincia. (Plin., 5, 4.—Liv., 29, 25.—Polyb., 1, 82.—Id., 3, 23.-Id., Excerpt. Leg., 118.)-Gesenius deduces the name Byzacium (Bizacium, Bvooakiτıç, Polyb.) from the Punic Byt saki, "an irrigated region." (Phan. Mon., p. 420.) Hamaker, less correctly, from Beth saki, "the abode of irrigation." (Miscell. Phan., p. 234.) BYZANTIUM, a celebrated city of Thrace, on the shore of the Thracian Bosporus, called at a later period Constantinopolis, and made the capital of the Eastern empire of the Romans. It was founded by a Dorian colony from Megara, or, rather, by a Megarian colony in conjunction with a Thracian prince. For Byzas, whom the city acknowledged, and celebrated in a festival as its founder, was, according to the legend, a son of Neptune and Ceroessa the daughter of Io, and ruled over all the Darius, and the Persian fleet was reducing to obedience the Greek cities along the Hellespont and Propontis, the Byzantines, together with a body of Chalcedonians, would not wait for the coming of the Persians, but, leaving their habitations, and fleeing to the Euxine, built the city of Mesembria on the upper coast of Thrace. (Herod., 6, 33.) The Persians destroyed the empty city, and no Byzantium for some time thereafter existed. This will explain why Scylax, in his Periplus, passed by Byzantium in silence, while he mentions all the Grecian settlements in this quarter, and among them even Mesembria itself. Byzantium re-appeared after the overthrow of Xerxes, some of the old inhabitants having probably returned, and here Pausanias, the commander of the Grecian forces, took up his headquarters. He gave the city a code of laws, and a government modelled, in some degree, after the Spartan form, and hence he was regarded by some as the true founder of the city. (Justin, 9, 1.) The Athenians succeeding to the hegemony, Byzantium fell under their control, and received so many im great market. The new city, called Constantinopolis, or " City of Constantine," was three times as large, and covered four hills, together with part of a fifth, having a circuit of somewhat less than fourteeen geographical miles. Every effort was made to embel portant additions from thein, that Ammianus Marcel-wards the interior to what is now the Besestan, or linus, in a later age, calls it an Attic colony (22, 8). The city, however, was a Doric one, in language, customs, and laws, and remained so even after the Athenians had the control of it. The maintenance of this military post became of great importance to the Greeks during their warfare with the Persians in sub-lish this new capital of the Roman world; the most sequent years, and this circumstance, together with splendid edifices were erected, an imperial palace, nuthe advantages of a lucrative and now continually in- merous residences for the chief officers of the court, creasing commerce, gave Byzantium a high rank churches, baths, a hippodrome; and inhabitants were among Grecian cities. After Athens and Sparta had procured from every quarter. Its rapid increase callweakened the power of each other by national rivalry, ed, from time to time, for a corresponding enlargement and neither could lay claim to the empire of the sea, of the city, until, in the reign of Theodosius II., when Byzantium became an independent city, and turned its the new walls were erected (the previous ones having whole attention to commerce. Its strong situation been thrown down by an earthquake), Constantinople enabled it, at a subsequent period, to resist successfully attained to the size which it at present has. (Zonaras, the arms of Philip of Macedon; nor did Alexander, in 13, 23.) Chalcondylas supposes the walls of the city his eagerness to march into Asia, make any attempt to be 111 stadia in circumference; Gyllius, about upon the place. It preserved also a neutral character thirteen Italian miles; but, according to the best under his successors. The great evil to which the modern plans of Constantinople, it is not less than city of Byzantium was exposed came from the inland 19,700 yards. The number of gates is twenty-eight; country, the Thracian tribes continually making incur- fourteen on the side of the port, seven towards the sions into the fertile territory around the place, and land, and as many on the Propontis. The city is carrying off more or less of the produce of the fields. built on a triangular promontory, and the number of The city suffered severely also from the Gauls; being hills which it covers is seven. Besides the name of compelled to pay a yearly tribute, amounting at least Constantinopolis, or Constantinou polis (Kwvotavtíto eighty talents. After the departure of the Gauls it vou mois), this city had also the more imposing one of again became a flourishing place, but its most prosper- New Rome (Néa 'Púμn), which, however, gradually fell ous period was during the Roman sway. It had into disuse. At the present day, the peasants in the thrown itself into the arms of the Romans as early as neighbourhood, while they repair to Constantinople, the war against the younger Philip of Macedon, and say in vulgar Greek that they are going es tan bolin enjoyed from this people not only complete protection, (i. e., és ràv nóhiv), “to the city," whence has arisen out also many valuable commercial privileges. It was the Turkish name of the place, namely, Stamboul. allowed, moreover, to lay a toll on all vessels passing The more polished or less barbarous inhabitants, howthrough the straits, a thing which had been attempted ever, frequently call it Constantinia. It is easy to before without success, and this toll it shared with the recognise in the vulgar Greek of the peasantry, as just Romans. (Strabo, 320.—Herodian, 3, 1.) But the given, the remains of the ancient Doric. (Mannert, day of misfortune at length came. In the contest for Geogr., vol. 7, p. 154, seqq.) For an account of the the empire between Severus and Niger, Byzantium Byzantine empire consult the succeeding article, at the declared for the latter, and stood a siege in conse- end of which also will be found some remarks on the quence, which continued long after Niger's overthrow Byzantine historians, as they have been denominated. and death. After three years of almost incredible ex--Constantinople was taken by Mohammed II., on the ertions, the place surrendered to Severus. The few 29th May, A.D. 1453. remaining inhabitants whom famine had spared were BYZANTINUM IMPERIUM. The Byzantine, or Eastsold as slaves, the city was razed to the ground, its ern Roman Empire, comprehended at first, in Asia, territory given to Perinthus, and a small village took the country on this side of the Euphrates, the coasts the place of the great commercial emporium. Re- of the Black Sea, and Asia Minor; in Africa, Egypt; penting soon after of what he had done, Severus re- and in Europe, all the countries from the Hellespont built Byzantium, and adorned it with numerous and to the Adriatic and Danube. This survived the Westsplendid buildings, which in a later age still bore his ern Empire 1000 years, and was even increased by name, but it never recovered its former rank until the the addition of Italy and the coasts of the Mediterradays of Constantine. (Herodian, 3, 6.-Dio Cass., nean. It commenced in 395, when Theodosius divided 74, 10-Spartian., Caracall., c. 1.-Zosimus, 2, 30. the Roman empire between his two sons, Arcadius and -Suidas, s. v. Zεbйpoç.-Treb. Pollio, Gallien., c. Honorius. The Eastern Empire fell to the elder, Arca6.-Claud., c. 9.)-Constantine had no great affection dius, through whose weakness it suffered many misforfor Rome as a city, nor had the inhabitants any great tunes. During his minority Rufinus was his guardian regard for him. He felt the necessity, moreover, of and minister, between whom and Stilicho, the minister having the capital of the empire in some more central of the Western Empire, a fierce rivalry existed. The quarter, from which the movements of the German Goths laid waste Greece. Eutropius, the successor, tribes on the one hand, and those of the Persians on and Gainas, the murderer, of Rufinus, were ruined by the other, might be observed. He long sought for their own crimes. The latter lost his life in a civil war such a locality, and believed at one time that he had excited by him (A.D. 400). Arcadius and his emfound it in the neighbourhood of the Sigaan promonto-pire were now ruled by his proud and covetous wife ry, on the coast of Troas. He had even commenced Eudoxia, till her death (A.D. 404). The Isaurians building here, when the superior advantages of Byzan- and the Huns wasted the provinces of Asia, and the tium as a centre of empire attracted his attention, country along the Danube. Theodosius, the younger, and he finally resolved to make this the capital of the succeeded his father (A.D. 408), under the guardianRoman world. For a monarchy possessing the west- ship of his sister Pulcheria. Naturally of an inferior ern portion of Asia, and the largest part of Europe, mind, his education had made him entirely imbecile, together with the whole coast of the Mediterranean and unfit for self-command. Pulcheria, who bore the Sea, nature herself seemed to have destined Byzan- title of Augusta, administered the kingdom ably. Of tium as a capital. Constantine's plan was carried the Western Empire, which had been ceded to Valeninto rapid execution. The ancient city had possessed tinian, Theodosius retained Western Illyria. The a circuit of forty stadia, and covered merely two hills, Greeks fought with success against the King of the one close to the water, on which the Seraglio at pres- Persians, Varanes. The kingdom of Armenia, thrown ent stands, and another adjoining it, and extending to- into confusion by internal dissensions, and claimed at the same time by the Romans and the Persians, be- | their officers, emperor. Mauritius was taken in his came now an apple of contention between the two flight and put to death (A.D. 602). The vices of Phonations (A.D. 440.) Attila laid waste the dominions cas, and his incapacity for government, produced the of Theodosius, and obliged him to pay tribute. After greatest disorders in the empire. Heraclius, son of the death of her brother, Pulcheria was acknowledged the governor of Africa, took up arms, conquered Conempress (A.D. 450). She was the first female who at-stantinople, and caused Phocas to be executed (A.D. tained this dignity. She gave her hand to the senator 610). He distinguished himself only in the short peMarcian, and raised him to the throne. His wisdom riod of the Persian war. During the first twelve and valour averted the attacks of the Huns from the years of his reign, the Avari, and other nations of the frontiers, but he did not support the Western Empire Danube, plundered the European provinces, and the in its wars against the Huns and Vandals with suffi- Persians conquered the coasts of Syria and Egypt. cient energy. He afforded shelter to a part of the Having finally succeeded in pacifying the Avari, he Germans and Sarmatians, who were driven to the Ro- marched against the Persians (A.D. 622), and defeatman frontiers by the incursions of the Huns. Pulche- ed them; but, during this time, the Avari, who had ria died before him in 453. Leo I. (A.D. 457), a renewed the war, made an unsuccessful attack on prince praised by contemporary authors, was chosen Constantinople in 626. Taking advantage of an insuccessor of Marcian. His expeditions against the surrection of the subjects of Chosroes, he penetrated Vandals (A.D. 467) were unsuccessful. His grand- into the centre of Persia. By the peace concluded son Leo would have succeeded him, but died a minor with Siroes (A.D. 628), he recovered the lost provinces shortly after him, having named his father Zeno his and the holy cross. But the Arabians, who, meancolleague (A.D. 474). The government of this weak while, had become powerful under Mohammed and emperor, who was hated by his subjects, was disturbed the califs, conquered Phoenicia, the countries on the by rebellions and internal disorders of the empire. Euphrates, Judea, Syria, and all Egypt (A.D. 631The Goths depopulated their provinces till their king, 641). Among his descendants there was not one able Theodoric, turned his arms against Italy (A.D. 489). prince. He was succeeded by his son Constantine Ariadne, widow of Zeno, raised the minister Anasta- III., probably in conjunction with his step-brother sius, whom she married, to the throne (A.D. 491). Heracleonas. The former soon died, and the latter The nation, once excited to discontents and tumults, lost his crown and was mutilated. After him, Concould not be entirely appeased by the alleviation of stans, son of Constantine, obtained the throne (A D. their burdens and by wise decrees. The forces of the 642). His sanguinary spirit of persecution, and the empire, being thus weakened, could not offer an ef- murder of his brother Theodosius, made him odious fectual resistance to the Persians and the barbarians to the nation. The Arabians, pursuing their conalong the Danube. To prevent their incursions into quests, took from him part of Africa, Cyprus, and the peninsula of Constantinople, Anastasius built the Rhodes, and defeated him at sea (A.D. 653). Interlong wall, as it is called. After the death of Anasta- nal disturbances obliged him to make peace. After sius, the soldiers proclaimed Justin emperor (A.D. this he left Constantinople (A.D. 659), and, in the 518). Notwithstanding his low birth, he maintained following year, carried on an unsuccessful war against possession of the throne. Religious persecutions, the Lombards in Italy, in which he lost his life at Syrwhich he undertook at the instigation of the clergy, acuse (A.D. 660). Constantine IV., Pogonatus, son and various crimes into which he was seduced by his of Constans, vanquished his Syracusan competitor Menephew Justinian, disgrace his reign. After his early zizius, and, in the beginning of his reign, shared the death, in 521, he was succeeded by the same Justin- government with his brothers Tiberius and Heraclius. ian, to whom, though he deserves not the name of The Arabians inundated all Africa and Sicily, penethe Great, many virtues of a ruler cannot be denied. trated through Asia Minor into Thrace, and attacked He was renowned as a legislator, and his reign was Constantinople for several successive years by sea distinguished by the victories of his general Belisa- (A.D. 669). Nevertheless, he made peace with them rius; but how unable he was to revive the strength on favourable terms. But, on the other hand, the of his empire was proved by its rapid decay after his Bulgarians obliged him to pay a tribute (A.D. 680). death. Justin II., his successor (A.D. 565), was an Justinian II., his son and successor, weakened the avaricious, cruel, weak prince, governed by his wife. power of the Maronites, but fought without success The Lombards tore from him part of Italy (A.D. against the Bulgarians and Arabians. Leonitius de568). His war with Persia, for the possession of Ar- throned this cruel prince, had him mutilated, and sent menia, was unsuccessful; the Avari plundered the to the Tauric Chersonese (A.D. 695). Leonitius was provinces on the Danube, and the violence of his grief dethroned by Apsimar, or Tiberius III. (A.D. 698), at these misfortunes deprived him of reason. Tibe- who was himself dethroned by Trebelius, king of the rius, his minister, a man of merit, was declared Cæ- Bulgarians, who restored Justinian to the throne (A.D. and the general Justinian conducted the war 705); but Philippicus Bardanes rebelled anew against against Persia with success. The Greeks now al- him. With Justinian II. the race of Heraclius was lied themselves, for the first time, with the Turks. extinguished. The only care of Philippicus was the Against his successor, Tiberius II. (A.D. 578), the spreading of Monotheism, while the Arabians wasted Empress Sophia and the general Justinian conspired in Asia Minor and Thrace. In opposition to this prince, vain. From the Avari the emperor purchased peace; who was universally hated, the different armies profrom the Persians it was extorted by his general Mau- claimed their leaders emperors, among whom Leo ritius or Maurice (A.D. 582). This commander Ti- the Isaurian obtained the superiority (A.D. 713–714). berius declared Cæsar in the same year. Mauritius, Leo repelled the Arabians from Constantinople, which under other circumstances, would have made an ex- they had attacked for almost two years, and suppresscellent monarch, but for the times he wanted prudence ed the rebellion excited by Basilius and the former and resolution. He was indebted for the tranquillity emperor Anastasius. From 726 the abolition of the of the eastern frontiers to the gratitude of King Chos- worship of images absorbed his attention, and the roes II., whom, in 591, he restored to the throne Italian provinces were allowed to become a prey to the from which he had been deposed by his subjects. Lombards, while the Arabians plundered the eastern Nevertheless, the war against the Avari was unsuc- provinces. After his death (A.D. 741) his son Concessful, through the errors of Commentiolus. The stantine V. ascended the throne, a courageous, active, army was discontented, and was irritated, now by un- and noble prince. He vanquished his rebellious timely severity and parsimony, and now by timid in- brother-in-law Artabasdus, wrested from the Arabians dulgence. They finally proclaimed Phocas, one of part of Syria and Armenia, and overcame at last the sar, II., succeeded (A.D. 1180), and was dethroned by his Bulgarians, against whom he had been long unsuccess- | 1143, was also not unfortunate. His son, Alexius ful. He died (A.D. 775), and was succeeded by his son Leo III., who fought successfully against the Arabians; and this latter, by his son Constantine VI., whose imperious mother Irene, his guardian and associate in the government, raised a powerful party by the restoration of the worship of images. He endeavoured in vain to free himself from dependance on her and her favourite Stauratius, and died in 796, after having had his eyes put out. The war against the Arabians and Bulgarians was long continued; against the former it was unsuccessful. The design of the empress to marry Charlemagne excited the discontent of the patricians, who placed one of their own order, Nicephorus, upon the throne (A.D. 802). Irene died in a monastery. Nicephorus became tributary to the Arabians, and fell in the war against the Bulgarians (A.D. 811). Stauratius, his son, was deprived of the crown by Michael I., and he in turn by Leo IV. (A.D. 813). Leo was dethroned and put to death by Michael II. (A.D. 826). During the reign of the latter, the Arabians conquered Sicily, Lower Italy, Crete, and other countries. Michael prohibited the worship of images; as did also his son Theophilus. Theodora, guardian of his son Michael III., put a stop to the dispute about images (A.D. 841). During a cruel persecution of the Manichæans, the Arabians devastated the Asiatic provinces. The dissolute and extravagant Michael confined his mother in a monastery. The government was administered in his name by Bardas, his uncle, and after the death of Bardas by Basil, who was put to death by Michael (A.D. 867). Basil I., who came to the throne in 867, was not altogether a contemptible monarch. He died A.D. 886. The reign of his learned son, Leo V., was not very happy. He died A.D. 911. His son, Constantine VIII., Por-quered Constantinople in 1261, and Baldwin died in phyrogenitus, a minor when he succeeded his father, the West a private person. The sovereigns of Nice, was placed under the guardianship of his colleague up to this period, were Theodore Lascaris (A.D. Alexander, and after Alexander's death in 912, under 1204); John Ducas Patatzes, a good monarch and that of his mother Zoe. Romanus Lakopenus, his successful warrior (A.D. 1222); Theodore II., his general, obliged him, in 919, to share the throne with son (A.D. 1259), who was deprived of the crown by him and his children. Constantine subsequently took Michael Palæologus (A.D. 1260). In 1261 Michael sole possession of it again, and reigned mildly but took Constantinople from the Latins. He laboured to weakly. His son Romanus II. succeeded him in 959, unite himself with the Latin church, but his son Anand fought successfully against the Arabians. To dronicus renounced the connexion. Internal disturbhim succeeded, in 963, his general Nicephorus, who ances and foreign wars, particularly with the Turks, was put to death by his own general, John Zimisces threw the exhausted empire into confusion. Andron(A.D. 970), who carried on a successful war against icus III., his grandson, obliged him to divide the the Russians. Basil II., son of Romanus, succeeded throne (A.D. 1322), and, at length, wrested it entirely this good prince. He vanquished the Bulgarians and from him. Andronicus died a monk (A.D. 1328). the Arabians. His brother, Constantine IX. (A.D. Andronicus IV., who ascended the throne in the same 1025), was not equal to him. Romanus III. became year, waged war unsuccessfully against the Turks, and emperor (A.D. 1028) by a marriage with Zoe, daugh- died A.D. 1341. His son John was obliged to share ter of Constantine. This dissolute but able princess the throne with his guardian, John Cantacuzenus, ducaused her husband to be executed, and successively ring ten years. The son of the latter, Matthew, was raised to the throne Michael IV. (A.D. 1034), Mi- also made emperor, but John Cantacuzenus resigned chael V. (A.D. 1041), and Constantine X. (A.D. the crown, and Matthew was compelled to abdicate 1042). Russians and Arabians meanwhile devastated (A.D. 1355) Under the reign of John, the Turks the empire. Her sister Theodora succeeded her on first obtained a firm footing in Europe, and conquered the throne (A.D. 1053). Her successor, Michael VI. Gallipolis (A.D. 1357). The family of Palæologus, (A.D. 1056), was dethroned by Isaac Comnenus in from this time, were gradually deprived of their Euro1057, who became a monk (A.D. 1059). His suc- pean territories, partly by revolt, and partly by the cessor, Constantine XI., Ducas, fought successfully Turks. The sultan Amurath took Adrianople A.D. against the Uzes. Eudocia, his wife, guardian of his 1361. Bajazet conquered almost all the European sons Michael, Andronicus, and Constantine, was in- provinces except Constantinople, and obliged John to trusted with the administration (A.D. 1067), married pay him tribute. The latter was, some time after, Romanus IV., and brought him the crown. He car-driven out by his own son Manuel (A.D. 1391). ried on an unsuccessful war against the Turks, who Bajazet besieged Constantinople, defeated an army of kept him for some time prisoner. Michael VII., son of western warriors under Sigismund, near Nicopolis, and Constantine, deprived him of the throne (A.D. 1071). Manuel was obliged to place John, son of Andronicus, Michael was dethroned by Nicephorus III. (A.D. 1078), on his throne. Timour's invasion of the Turkish and the latter by Alexius I., Comnenus (A.D. 1081). provinces saved Constantinople for this time (A.D. Under his reign the crusades commenced. His son, 1402). Manuel then recovered his throne, and reJohn II., came to the throne in 1118, and fought with gained some of the lost provinces from the contending great success against the Turks and other barbarians. sons of Bajazet. To him succeeded his son John The reign of his son Manuel I., who succeeded him in |(A.D. 1425), whom Amurath II. stripped of all his |