dar, and Aristophanes. His edition of Homer, in particular, enjoyed a high reputation, and was only obscured by the labours of his disciple Aristarchus. It is to Aristophanes that the grammarian Arcadius attributes the invention of accents and marks of punctuation. He is regarded also as the first who arranged the Canon of writers, to which Aristarchus subsequently put the finishing hand. (Vid. Alexandrina Schola.) We have nothing remaining of the works of Aristophanes, excepting a small fragment, containing the explanation of some Greek words, which Boissonade found in the library of the King of France. It is published by this scholar at the end of his edition of the 'Eniuepiouol of Herodian. Lond., 1819, 8vo. (Schöll, Hist. Lit. Gr., vol. 3, p. 188.)

by an appeal to the writings of Aristotle himself, who takes every occasion, it is alleged, to refute the theory of his master. The anecdotes, however, which are adduced in support of this opinion, will be found, on examination, to be as unworthy of notice as the similar statements which speak of Plato's ingratitude to Socrates. As regards his writings themselves, it is very true that Aristotle nowhere prominently exhibits the signal merit of Plato in the service of philosophy. This, however, may be explained, partly from the scope and design of Aristotle's works, and partly from his scientific character. The object of the former was not so much to give a due estimate of every philosopher, as, by an examination of their systems, to prevent his own disciples being disheartened or perplexed by erroneous opinions, ARISTOPHON, I. a Greek comic poet, contemporary however widely or speciously diffused. The scientific with Alexander. II. An Athenian orator, whom De- character of Aristotle, cu the other hand, prevented him mosthenes, in his speech against Leptines, ranks from reviewing the system of Plato in its spirit; for it among the most eloquent men of the republic.-III. cannot be denied that the Aristotelian criticism attaches Another orator of Athens, also distinguished in his itself by preference to single tencts, which it estimates, profession. He was one of the masters of Eschines. not so much by their philosophical import, and re(Schöll, Hist. Lit. Gr., vol. 2, p. 268.)-IV. A paint-lation to the system to which they belong, as by the er, a native of Thasos, and brother of Polygnotus. form of expression. It cannot be denied, however, that He is supposed to have flourished about Olymp. 80. Aristotle often finds fault with Plato, and never menPliny mentions several of his productions (35, 11.- tions him except to refute his doctrines; nay, that he Compare Plut., de aud. poet., 3, p. 69, vol. 7, ed. Hut- at times evinces something of a bitterness in the zeal len.) with which he attacks the system of Plato and the Platonists, and usually represents its tendency as fatal to science. (Ritter, p. 5, seqq.)-On the death of Plato he left Athens, and some time after was chosen by Philip preceptor to his son Alexander, which office he discharged with the greatest ability during eight years, until his pupil's accession to the throne. The letter which Philip wrote to Aristotle when he chose him preceptor to his son, was couched in the following terms:

ARISTOTELEA, annual feasts in honour of Aristotle, celebrated by the inhabitants of Stagira, in gratitude for his having obtained from Alexander the rebuilding and repeopling of that city, which had been demolished by King Philip. (Plut., Vit. Alex., 7.—Ælian, V. H., 3, 17.-Diog. Laert., 5, 9.)

ful to the gods, not so much for his birth, as that he was born in the same age with you; for if you will undertake the charge of his education, I assure myself that he will become worthy of his father, and of the kingdom which he will inherit." After Aristotle had left his pupil, he returned to Athens, but the two still carried on a friendly correspondence, in which the philosopher prevailed upon Alexander to employ his power and wealth in the service of philosophy. Alexander accordingly employed several thousand persons in different parts of Europe and Asia to collect animals of various kinds, birds, beasts, and fishes, and sent them to Aristotle, who, from the information which this collection afforded him, wrote fifty volumes on the history of animated nature, only a small portion of which is now extant. Upon his return to Athens, Aristotle resolved to found a new sect in opposition to the Academy. He chose for his school a grove and enclosure in the suburbs of Athens, called the Lyceum. (Vid. Lyceum.) From his walking about as he discoursed with his pupils, his followers, according to the

ARISTOTELES, a celebrated philosopher, born at Stagira, B.C. 384. His father was Nicomachus, who is said to have left behind him many works on medicine" Be informed that I have a son, and that I am thankand natural history (Suidas, s. v. Nikóμaxos), and who was the physician and friend of Amyntas, king of Macedonia. From the place of his birth Aristotle is frequently called the Stagirite. Having lost both his parents at a very early age, he received the first rudiments of learning from Proxenus of Atarneus in Mysia, of whom he always retained a respectful remembrance. In gratitude for the care which he had taken of his early education, he afterward honoured his memory with a statue, instructed his son Nicanor in the liberal sciences, and adopted him as his heir. At the age of seventeen Aristotle went to Athens, and devoted himself to philosophy in the school of Plato. The uncommon acuteness of his apprehension, and his indefatigable industry, soon attracted the attention of Plato, and obtained his applause. Plato used to call him the Mind of the School, and to say, when he was absent, "Intellect is not here." His acquaintance with books was extensive and accurate, as sufficiently appears from the concise abridgment of opinions, and the numerous quotations which are found in his works. The zeal, in fact, with which he strove to master the treas-common account, were termed Peripatetics (IIepiña. ures not only of the olden philosophy, but of the whole literature of Greece, may be inferred from another name, "the Reader," which Plato gave him, as well as by the remark made by that philosopher, when, on comparing him with Xenocrates, he said that the latter required the spur, but Aristotle the bit. (Diog. Laert, 4, 6.) He continued to reside at Athens for the space of 20 years, all of which time assuredly he did not devote to the instructions of Plato; on the contrary, we must assign to this period the preparatory labours of the great works of his after life. (Ritter, Hist. Phil., vol. 3, p. 2.) It would appear from the language of some eminent writers, that, in the last years of Plato's life, the earlier friendship between the master and disciple had given place to mutual misunderstanding, not to say animosity. Aristotle is accused of ingratitude towards Plato, and the charge is sought to be substantiated, not only by several anecdotes, but

TηTIKOì, ȧTÒ TOU REρITATεiv). Others, however, more correctly derive the appellation from the public walk (πɛρíñαTоç) in the Lyceum which Aristotle and his disciples were accustomed to frequent. (Compare Brucker, Hist. Crit. Phil., vol. 1, p. 788.) His instructions were not confined to philosophy, but comprised every branch of inquiry which could profit the youth of an enlightened age, and especially rhetoric. (Diog. Laert., 5, 3.Cic., de Orat., 3, 35.) His more abstruse discourses were delivered in the morning to his select disciples; this he called his morning walk. He delivered lectures to a more promiscuous auditory in the evening, when the Lyceum was open to all young men without distinction; this he termed his evening walk. The former investigations were called acroatic or acroamatic, the latter exoterical. Both were much frequented. Aristotle continued his school in the Lyceum for thirteen years, employed at the same time in the com

position of the principal part of his written works. To knowledge, or knowledge according to certain princithis period also must be assigned his important labours ples. These principles cannot, of themselves, be rein experimental knowledge, especially in the history of garded as objects of science, in so far as they are animals, wherein he was assisted, as we have already known previously to science (Anal. Post., 1, 1.— said, by the munificent liberality of Alexander. Sub- Eth. Nic., 5, 3); but they must be viewed as certain sequently, however, the philosopher appears to have fall- and fixed, and unable to be subjected to any scienen under the displeasure of his royal pupil and patron, tific procedure. Accordingly, he assumes an immein consequence of having expressed, in rather free diate cognition, which he distinguishes from science terms, his disapprobation of the changed habits of the in the strict sense, though he calls it certainty, and king. (Diog. Laert., 5, 10.-Plut., Vit. Alex., 55.) assigns it to science in a wider sense, or, rather, to The charge has even been brought against him, that wisdom and to reason. Aristotle's mode of deriving he furnished Antipater with the poison by which Alex- knowledge is from externals, Plato's from internals. ander was believed to have been taken off. (Plut., According to the former, we obtain the knowledge of Vit. Alex., 77.)-At the close of this period, Aristotle particulars immediately through the senses, while we retired to Chalcis with a few of his disciples, in order, acquire the universal (rà кať öžov) mediately through it is said, to escape a fate similar to that of Socrates, experience and logic. Plato, on the contrary, beran a charge of impiety having been, in like manner, brought with universals, and reasoned downward. In this we against him. (Ritter, p. 10, note.) He died at Chal- have the leading difference between the two schools. cis not long after this, at the age of 63. It is pretend- In the system of Aristotle, logic is the opyavov, the ed by some that he took poison, from the fear of being instrument by which all general knowledge is obtained. pursued by the Athenians; while others relate a still Hence the importance of logic in the peripatetic school. more idle tale, of his having thrown himself into the Logic, however, is only the instrument of science or waters of the Euripus (vid. Euripus); it is most prob- philosophy, quoad formam, for it is experience that able, however, that his death was the effect of prema- must supply the matter to be worked upon, and wrought ture decay, in consequence of excessive watchfulness into general principles. By his works comprehended and application. His body was interred at Stagira, under the title of Organum, Aristotle has rendered where his memory was honoured with an altar and a the greatest service to logic, as the science which tomb. Aristotle was twice married. By his second would establish the formal part of reasoning, and eluwife he had a son named Nicomachus, to whom he cidate its theory; and he ought not to be made respon addressed his "Greater Morals." His person was sible for the abuse, which afterward prevailed, of this slender; he had small eyes, and a shrill voice; and when same art among his later followers, the schoolmen. he was young, hesitated in his speech. He endeavour-The error into which they fell was to make logic caed to supply the defects of his natural form by an at-pable of supplying not only the form, but even the mattention to dress, and commonly appeared in a costly ter, of argumentation; in other words, to consider it an habit, with his beard shaven, his hair cut, and rings instrument that could of itself discover the truth.on his fingers. (Diog. Laert., 5, 1.-Vit. Aristot., ap. Aristotle, more than any other philosopher, enlarged Menag., fin.) Concerning his character, nothing can the limits of philosophy. He comprised therein all the be more contradictory than the accounts of different sciences (rational, empirical, or mixed), with the single writers; some making him a model of every virtue, exception of history; and he appears to have divided others the most infamous of human beings. (Athen., it, as a whole, into Logic, Physics, and Ethics, or spec13, p. 566, e.- —Ritter, p. 8, note.) The truth ap-ulative and practical. Aristotle's rà Þvσiká is not pears to be, that his virtues were neither of that exalted kind which command admiration, nor his faults so highly criminal as not to admit of some apology.-Aristotle possessed in a high degree the talents of discrimination and analysis, added to the most astonishing knowledge of books and the works of nature. To the latter, more especially, he devoted himself. He rejected the doctrine of ideas, maintaining that all our impressions and thoughts, and even the highest efforts of the understanding, are the fruit of experience. The Peripatetic is the great intellectual school of antiquity. In Aristotle we see the calm and sober inquirer, who does not, like Plato, pursue a lofty ideal, but keeps carefully in view the proximately practicable, and is not easily misled into any extravagance either of language or thought. In Aristotle we have the cold inquirer, and little more. Rarely, if ever, does he step aside to consider the bond which connects the science of the universal and of nature with the human intellect and will. Consequently, his works have none of that impressiveness which constitutes the principal charm of Plato's writings. It is true, we only possess a portion of his writings, and the very portion which is designedly free from all accessory matter and embellishment. Nevertheless, the very manner in which this portion is treated, sufficiently proves that Aristotle, even if his mind were not wholly alien from every poetical element, was unable to combine the sober results of science with a lively imagination.-The school of Aristotle has been termed the intellectual school, with reference to his doctrines; the school of experience, as looking without; and, in a moral point of view, the school of expediency or prudence, as finding the rule of moral conduct in the result of actions.-Philosophy, according to Aristotle, is science arising out of the love of

equivalent to Physics in the modern acceptation of the term, but has a much wider range, comprehending the nature of all beings, and not confined to mere material ones. Under this head, therefore, the nature of Deity comes in for consideration. But, in treating this topic, Aristotle fell from the high and lofty teaching of his master Plato, and taught the existence of deity in a lower sense, without any of those attributes which may be said to constitute his very nature. With him, Nature is a great machine, the first spring of which is Deity. He says nothing of the Supreme Being; he speaks of him merely as a first cause of movements, itself unmoved (тò πрūτоv кivovv ȧkívηTOV).— Aristotle has been accused of being an atheist and a necessitarian. The Christian fathers rejected his philosophy on the ground of atheism, because he taught that the world was eternal. His doctrine, however, would not seem to be in reality an atheistic one. He taught that Creation was not within the limits of time: that the essential nature of Deity was cause. Now if the cause be eternal, the effect must be eternal, and there never would be a time when Creation did not exist. It is evident that in this he did not mean to teach atheism. He is more justly chargeable with being a necessitarian, since all his reasonings on the Deity make him the first spring of the great machine of nature.-With regard to man, he likewise taught a less lofty doctrine than Plato. He makes the soul distinct from the body, but considered as its form (eldos or évreλexɛía), it is inseparable therefrom. He says little with regard to the immortality of the soul, and a future state of rewards and punishments; and has even by some been charged with materialism. A perfect unity of plan prevails through his Ethics, Politics, and Economics. Both the latter have for their end to show

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ARISTOXENUS, I. a native of Tarentum and disciple of Aristotle, who wrote both on philosophy and music. Among the works of a philosophical character which he composed, may be enumerated his treatise on the Laws respecting Education (πεрì παidikŵv vóμwv); his Pythagorean Theses (IIv@ayopikai áñоpáσeis), a collection of the precepts of morality inculcated by that sect; and his Biography of Eminent Philosophers (Bioc avôpov). In the last of these works he is unjust towards the character of Socrates, as far as we can learn from some fragments that have come down to us. The cause of this may either have been the little es

how the object of man's existence, defined in the Ethics, that of Göttling, Lips, 1824, 8vo, &c. Among the namely, virtue combined with happiness, may be attain- subsidiary works on Aristotle may be mentioned the ed in the civil and domestic relations, through a good following: Examen Critique de l'ouvrage d'Aristotɩ constitution of the state and household.-In the history intitulé Metaphysique, par Michelet, Paris, 1836, 8vo of the Aristotelian school, four periods are commonly-Essai sur la Metaphysique d'Aristote, par Ravaisnoticed. The first, from the death of Aristotle to the son, Paris, 1837, 2 vols. 8vo.-La Logique d'Aristote, time of Cicero, was a period of gradual decline, for par Saint-Hilaire, Paris, 1838, 2 vols. 8vo. These the philosophy of the Stagirite was deeper than suited French works are all prize-essays of the Institute. ordinary intellects, and they could not carry it on. Du- (Ritter's History of Philosophy, vol. 3, p. 1, seqq.— ring the second period, from Cicero to the seventh cen- Tennemann's Manual, &c., p. 121, seqq.-Enfield's tury of the Christian era, the philosophy of Aristotle Hist. Philos., vol. 1, p. 260, seqq.) was quite neglected, and almost unknown. From the seventh to the tenth century, the third period, it was revived, but in a greatly corrupted state. From the tenth to the fifteenth, the fourth period, when it was overthrown by Bacon and Descartes, it went by the name of the scholastic philosophy, being connected with polemic theology.-Aristotle was the most voluminous of the ancient philosophers. A large catalogue of his writings is given by Diogenes Laertius, and in modern times by Fabricius and others. From this it appears that he wrote many books besides those which have been transmitted to our own day. We have all his Logical works, five in number, and usually pub-teem in which music was held by Socrates, or a quarlished under the general title of Organon. We have rel which had occurred between the latter and Spin16 books on Physical Philosophy; 14 on Metaphysics; thares, the father of Aristoxenus, who had been one and three works on Morals; the first entitled Nico- of his disciples. Aristoxenus was celebrated among machean Ethics, addressed to his son Nicomachus; the ancients for applying the Aristotelian doctrine of the second Magna Moralia; the third a Discourse on knowledge to the scientific investigation of music. He Virtue and Vice. We have also separate works on compared the soul to a musical harmony, and thought Economics, Government, the Art of Rhetoric, and the that, as the latter is produced by the different relations Art of Poetry. The works of Aristotle, together with subsisting between several tones, so, too, the soul is the his library, passed very early through hazards which consequence of the relative arrangement of the differhave rendered it a subject of critical inquiry how far ent parts of the body; for that it is this which produ the present volumes which bear his name are genuine. ces the movement of the living body, and the soul is (Consult remarks under the article Apellicon.)-Be- to be regarded as nothing more than a certain tension fore closing this article, it may not be amiss to offer a of the body. (Cic., Tusc., 1, 10.) As a writer on few observations relative to the term Metaphysics, as music, Aristoxenus must be regarded as the earliest applied to some of the writings of Aristotle. This ap- that we possess. His work on Harmony was pubpellation is not found either in the works of the Stagi-lished by Meursius in 1616 (Lugd. Bat., 4to), and rite himself, or in those of any Greek or Roman philosopher anterior to Nicholas of Damascus. It is said that Andronicus of Rhodes, wishing to arrange the works of Aristotle, distributed them into different classes, such as works on logic, on rhetoric, on poetry, &c. The last of these sections or divisions comprehended the works on Physics. Still, however, there remained over a number of writings, which he had been unable to assign to any class, because, being first essays in a new science, they did not fall under any one of the heads under which he had arranged the rest. He therefore united these into one class by themselves, and assigned them their rank after the works on Physics (μerà Tà quoikú), whence arose their peculiar name, which had no reference whatever to the subjects discussed in them. With a little more attention on his part, Andronicus might have found a better title in the writings of Aristotle himself; for it appears that the books which we have on Metaphysics are the same with what the Stagirite calls his Λόγοι ἐκ τῆς πρώτης Pi2ooopías," Discourses on the First Philosophy."The best editions of the entire works of Aristotle are, that of Du Val, Paris, 1619, 2 vols. fol.; that of Bekker, Berol., 1831, 5 vols. 4to; and the small stereotype one published by Tauchnitz, Lips., 16 vols. 18mo, 1832, &c.-Of the separate treatises, the following editions may be mentioned. The best edition of the Organon is that of Geneva, 1605, 4to; of the Ethics, that of Cardwell, Oxon., 1828-30, 2 vols. 8vo; to which we may add that of Bekker, Berol., 1831, 8vo; of the Art of Poetry, that of Hermann, Lips., 1803, 8vo; to which may be added the excellent one of Tyrwhitt, Oxon., 1794, 4to, and that of Grafenhahn, Lips., 1821, 8vo; of the Art of Rhetoric, that published at Oxford, 1820, 2 vols. 8vo; of the History of Animals, that of Schneider, Lips., 1811, 4 vols. 8vo; of the Politics,

subsequently, in a much more correct form, by Meibo mius, in his collection of the Writers on Music. The fragments on Rhythm were published for the first time by Morelli, at the end of the speech of Aristides against Leptines (Venet., 1785, 8vo). The remains of the philosophical writings of Aristoxenus are principally in Stobæus, but have not as yet been edited by any scholar. Compare, with regard to this writer, the re marks of Meiners, Gesch. der Wissensch., vol. 1, p. 213, and Mahne, Diatribe de Aristoxeno, Amst., 1793, 8vo).-II. A physician, disciple of Alexander Philalethes, cited by Galen (diff. puls, 4, p. 47). He recommended the use of clysters in hydrophobia; and boasted much of the efficacy of frictions with oil and the plant termed by botanists polygonum convolvulus. in cases of quartan fever. He left a work on the principles of his school, which has not come down to us. (Coel. Aurel., acut., 3, 16, p. 233.-Apoll. Dysc., hist. mirab, c. 33, p. 133-Galen, l. c.)

ARIUS, a presbyter of the church of Alexandrea, in the 4th century. He denied the divinity and consubstantiality of the Word. After having been persecuted for his opinions, he gained the favour of the Emperor Constantine, and supplanted St. Athanasius, his adversary, but died suddenly, when just about to enter in triumph the cathedral of Constantinople, A.D. 336. He gave name to the sect of the Arians. (Epiphan.. Hares., 68.-Socrat., Hist. Eccles., &c.)

ARMENIA, a large country of Asia, divided into Armenia Major and Minor. The first, which is the mod. ern Turcomania, and is still sometimes called Armenia, lies south of Mount Caucasus, and comprehends the Turkish pachalics Erzerum, Kars, and Van, and also the Persian province Iran or Erivan. It was separa ted from Armenia Minor by the river Euphrates. Ar menia Minor was, properly speaking, a part of Cappa

docia. It is now called Aladulia or Pegian, belongs For some remarks on the Armenian language, consult to the Turks, and is divided between the pachalics Balbi, Atlas Ethnographique, &c., tabl. 4, and IntroMerashe and Sivas. Armenia is a rough, mountain- duction a l'Atlas, p. 45.-As regards the literary ous country, which has Caucasus for its northern history of Armenia, it may be remarked, that the literaboundary, and in the centre is traversed by branches ture of the country begins with the conversion of the of Mount Taurus, to which belongs Mount Ararat. Armenians to Christianity in the commencement of the Here the two great rivers Euphrates and Tigris take fourth century. Since that time they have translated their rise; likewise the Cyrus or Kur, and other less from the Greek (there is a Homer in Armenian hexconsiderable streams. Herodotus (7, 73) says that ameters), Hebrew, Syriac, and Chaldee, into their the Armenians were a Phrygian colony, and used arms own dialect, which some assert to be an original lanlike those of the Phrygians; but, as Ritter well re- guage, as has already been remarked; while others marks (Erdkunde, vol. 2, p. 782), the nations whom regard it as a mixed dialect, composed of the Syriac, the father of profane history designates as Phrygians, Chaldee, Hebrew, and Arabic. Both opinions are corArmenians, Cappadocians, and Syrians, are all de- rect. The old Armenian, the language of literature scendants of the Aramean stock. Hence we may, with and of the church, is, as Vater agrees, an original lansome degree of probability, consider the name Armenia guage; the modern Armenian has been formed, as a as derived from Aram, and the Semitic Arameans to popular language, by foreign additions during the suchave been the first inhabitants of the land, who were cessive changes of their conquerors, and consists of afterward overpowered by barbarian tribes from Upper four principal dialects. The written language owes Asia. (Compare Adelung, Mithradates, vol. 1, p. 420.) its cultivation to the translation of the Bible, begun in According to another opinion, the Armenian tongue 411 by Mesrob, with his disciples (among whom was may be traced to Xisuthros or Noah, and may boast Moses Choronensis), by the desire of the patriarch of being antediluvian in its character. (Recherches Isaac the Great, and finished in 511. Mesrob first Curieuses, &c., par Chahan de Cubied et Martin, added seven vowel signs to the old Armenian alphaParis, 1806, 8vo.) Of the ancient history of Arme- het, which before only contained 27 consonants. At nia but little is known. The native writers make the same time schools were established. The most Haig to have been the first chieftain or prince that flourishing period of Armenian literature was in the ruled over this country, and from him they called them-sixth century, at the time of the separation of the Arselves Haji. He was the son of Taglath, who, ac- menians from the Greek church after the council of cording to them, was the same with Thogarma, grand- Chalcedon. It continued to flourish until the tenth son of Japhet. Twenty-two centuries before the century, revived in the thirteenth, and maintained a Christian era he left Babylon, his native place, and es- respectable character till 1453. In scientific inquiries tablished himself, with all his family, in the mountains it never rose to any considerable eminence. It is parof southern Armenia, in order to escape from the tyr- ticularly valuable in what relates to history.-The best anny of Belus, king of Assyria. The latter attacked introduction to Armenian history, geography, and lithim in his new settlements, but perished by his hand. erature, is that which M. J. Saint-Martin, member of Aram, the sixth successor of Haig, became so distin- the French Institute, has extracted from old Armenian guished by his exploits, that, from his time, the sur- writings, inscriptions, and other sources, under the rounding nations called the country Armenia, after his title of Mémoires historiques et géographiques sur name. Ara, son of the preceding, fell in defending l'Armenie, Paris, 1808, 2 vols. (Encyc. Amer., 1, his country against Semiramis, and Armenia became 373.) thenceforward an Assyrian province until the death of Sardanapalus, when a succession of native princes again appeared. (Compare Klaproth, Tableaux Historiques de l'Asie, &c., p. 50, seqq.) After the death of Alexander, it became part of the kingdom of Syria, and so remained till the overthrow of Antiochus the Great, when it fell into the hands of different rulers, and was divided into Armenia Major and Minor.-Ar- | menia Major was exposed to many attacks. ARMINIUS (the Latin name for Hermann, i. e., leadRomans and Parthians fought a long time for the er or general), the deliverer of Germany from the right of giving a successor to the throne, and it was Roman yoke. He was a son of a prince of the governed at one period by Parthian princes, at anoth- Cherusci, Sigimer (which, in the old German, signifies er by those whom the Romans favoured, until Tra- a famous conqueror), and was born 18 B.C. jan made it a Roman province. Armenia afterward educated at Rome, admitted into the rank of equites, recovered its independence, and was under the rule and appointed to an honourable station in the army of of its own kings. Sapor, king of Persia, attempt- Augustus. But princely favour and the charms of ed its subjugation in vain, and it remained free until learning were insufficient to make the young barbarian 650, when it was conquered by the Arabians. After forget his early associations. Convinced that the rude this it several times changed its masters, among whom strength of his savage countrymen would be unequal were Gengis-Khan and Timour-leng. In 1552, Selim to cope with the disciplined forces of the Romans in II. conquered it from the Persians, and the greater the open field, he had recourse to stratagem. Having part has since remained under the Turkish dominion. fomented the discontent prevailing among the German -Armenia Minor has also had several rulers, among nations, and having produced a wide confederacy for whom Mithradates was first distinguished. From revolt, he artfully drew Varus, the Roman commander him Pompey took the kingdom, and gave it to Deiota- on the Rhine, into an ambuscade, where three Roman rus. On the decline of the Roman Empire in the legions were cut to pieces. Varus, unable to survive east it was conquered by the Persians, and in 950 his disgrace, slew himself, A.D. 10. Germanicus fell into the hands of the Arabians, since which time marched with a powerful army to revenge the overit has shared the same fate as Armenia Major, and was throw of Varus; but it required more than one cammade, in 1514, a Turkish province by Selim I.-The paign, and several battles, before he obtained any deearlier capital of Armenia was Armavir, which, during cided advantage; and at last Arminius fell a sacrifice 1800 years, was the residence of the kings. After only to the civil feuds in which he was involved with Armavir, Artaxata (Artaschad) on the Araxes, built his own countrymen and kindred, being assassinated in the time of the Seleucidæ, became the capital, but by one of his own relations, in the 37th year of his sank into decay before the end of the 8th century.-age. Tacitus relates, that he drew upon himself the

The

ARMILUSTRIUM OF ARMILUSTRUM, a festival at Rome, on the 19th of October, during which they sacrificed completely armed, and to the sound of trumpets. It was intended for the expiation of the armies, and the prosperity of the arms of the Roman people. The name is also sometimes applied to the place in which the sacrifice was performed. (Varro, L. L., 4, 32.— Id. ib., 5, 3.—Liv., 27, 37.)

He was

ARPI, a city of Apulia, in the interior of Daunia, remarkable for its antiquity. Its first name was Argyrippa, an appellation supposed to be modified from "Apуos "Innov, the name which it received originally from its founder Diomede. When Arpi is first introduced to our notice in the history of Rome, it is rep resented as an Apulian city of no great importance, and of which the Romans possessed themselves without difficulty. (Liv., 9, 13.) In the second Punic war it fell into the hands of Hannibal after the battle of Canna (Polyb., 3, 88 and 118), but was recovered by the Romans. Arpi was greatly reduced in the time of Strabo (283), but still continued to exist under Constantine as an episcopal sce. (Cramer's An

hatred of his countrymen by aiming at the regal au- [ of which Patra was afterward built. The other two thority. A short time before his death, Adgantestes were Anthea and Messatis. (Pausan., 7, 18.) or Adgantestrius, prince of the Catti, proposed to the AROMATA, or AROMATUM PROMONTORIUM, the most Roman senate to despatch Arminius by poison, but eastern land of the continent of Africa, now Cape the senate took no notice of the offer. Arminius was Guardafui. (Ptol., 1, 9, p. 11.) 26 years old when he destroyed the legions of Varus. In the language of Tacitus, "Arminius was doubtless the deliverer of Germany. He fought against the Romans, not like other kings and generals, when they were weak, but when their empire was mighty and their renown glorious. Fortune, indeed, sometimes deserted him; but, even when conquered, his noble character and his extensive influence commanded the veneration of his conquerors. For twelve years he presided over the destinies of Germany, to the complete satisfaction of his countrymen; and, after his death, they paid him divine honours." (Tacit., Ann., 2, 88.) If we dwell a moment on the results of his victory, we will find that it had a decided influence on the whole character of Germany, political and liter-cient Italy, vol. 2, p. 282.) ary; because it is evident that, had the Romans remained in quiet possession of the country, they would have given a tone to all its institutions and its language, as was the case with all the other countries of Europe conquered by them. The reason, therefore, why the language of the Germans remained in a great degree unmixed with, and uninfluenced by, the Latin, and why their political institutions retained so much of their ancient character, is to be found in the victory of Arminius. (Encyclop. Americ., vol. 1, p. 375, seqq. -Bibl. Univ., vol. 2, p. 480.-Menzel, Geschichte der Deutschen, p. 58.)

ARMORICA. Vid. Aremorica.

ARNA, I. a city of Lycia, called afterward Xanthus. (Vid. Xanthus.)-II. a town of Umbria, west of Nuceria, and near the Tiber. It is now Civitella d'Arno. (Plin., 3, 14.-Sil. Ital., 8, 458.)

ARNOBIUS, I. the Elder, called also the African, was born at Sicca Venerea in Numidia, in the latter part of the third century. He was at first a pagan, and taught rhetoric in his native city, where he acquired a high reputation; but he subsequently embraced Christianity, being moved thereto by dreams, according to St. Jerome. (Chron. ad ann. xx. Const.-Compare de vir. ill., 79). As, however, he had warmly attacked Christianity before his conversion, in the course of his public lectures, the bishop of Sicca refused to admit him within the pale of the church until he had evinced the sincerity of his conversion by some open act. In consequence of this, while yet a catechumen, he wrote a work entitled Libri vii. adversus gentes, in which he refuted the objections of the heathen against Christianity with spirit and learning. This work betrays, as may well be expected, a defective knowledge of the Christian religion, but it is rich in materials for the understanding of Greek and Roman mythology: hence it is one of the writings of the Latin fathers, which, like the works of his disciple Lactantius, are particularly valued by philologists. We have given above the more correct title of the work of Arnobius. It is commonly, but less correctly, called Libri vii. disputationum adversus gentes. (Le Nourry, Apparat. ad Bibl. Patr., 2, p. 285.-Bähr, ChristlichRom. Theol., p. 67.) The latest and best edition of Arnobius is that of Orellius (Lips., 1816, 8vo).II. The younger, a Gallic divine in the last half of the 5th century. We have from him an insignificant commentary on the Psalms, which betrays the principles of the Semi-Pelagians. (Bähr, l. c.)

ARNUS, a river of Etruria, rising in the Umbrian Apennines, and falling into the Mediterranean. It is now the Arno. On its banks stood Florentia, the modern Florence, and near its mouth Pisa, now Pisa. The portus Pisanus was at the very mouth. (Strab., 222.-Rutil., Itin., 1, 531.)

AROE, One of the three towns of Achaia on the site

ARPINUM, a small town of Latium, southeast of Rome, still known by the name of Arpino. It is rendered illustrious in the page of history for having given birth to Marius and Cicero. It originally belonged to the Volsci, but was taken by the Samnites, from whom it was again wrested by the Romans." (Liv., 9, 44.) It became a municipal town, and its citizens were enrolled in the Cornelian tribe. Of course, frequent mention is made of Arpinum in Cicero's letters: he was fond of his native place, and dwells with complacency on the rude and primitive simplicity of its customs, applying to it those lines of the Odyssey (1, 27, seqq.) in which Ulysses expresses his love for Ithaca. (Cramer's Ancient Italy, vol. 2, p. 114, segg.)

ARRIA, the wife of Cacina Pætus. Her husband, a man of consular rank, having taken part in the unsuccessful revolt of Scribonianus, in Illyricum, against the Emperor Claudius, was brought to Rome for trial. Arria, finding all means of saving him ineffectual, and perceiving him, at the same time, destitute of sufficient courage to destroy himself, plunged a dagger into her own bosom in the presence of her husband, and then drawing it forth, handed the weapon to him, calmly remarking at the time, "it does not pain." Martial has made this the subject of an epigram (1, 14).

ARRIANUS, I. a Greek historian, a native of Nicomedia, who flourished in the second century under Hadrian and the Antonines. In his own country he was a priest of Ceres and Proserpina; but, taking up his residence at Rome, he became a disciple of Epictetus. He was honoured with the citizenship of Rome, and appointed prefect of Cappadocia by the Emperor Hadrian, who patronised him on account of his learning and talents. In this capacity he distinguished himself by his prudence and valour in the war against the Massagetæ, and was afterward advanced to the senatorial and even consular dignities. Like Xenophon, he united the literary with the military character, was conversant with philosophy and learning, and intimate with those who cultivated them. No less than seven of the epistles of Pliny the younger are addressed to Arrian. His historical writings were numerous; but of these, with the exception of some fragments in Photius, only two remain. first is composed of seven books on the expedition of Alexander, which, being principally compiled from the memoirs of Ptolemy Lagus and Aristobulus, who both served under that king, are deemed proportionably valuable. Arrian, himself a soldier and a politician, possessed a sounder judgment than Quintus Curtius, and indulged less in the marvellous. To this work is added a book on the affairs of India, which pursues the history of Alexander, but is not deemed of equal authority with the former. An epistle from Arrian to

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