the Emperor Justinian. This work was known by the ed with the legend of Hercules, he having been bor title repi lohewv, de Urbibus, but that of the original before Hercules, and, therefore, exercising a control was Elvikά; hence it has been inferred that the au- over him. (Vid. Hercules.)-II. A son of Capaneus. thor's intention was to write a geographical work. It He was one of the Epigoni, and also one of the suiters scems that Stephanus, who is usually quoted by the of Helen. He went to the Trojan war, and was, actitle of Stephanus Byzantinus, or Stephanus of Byzan-cording to Virgil, in the number of those who were shut tium, not only gave in his original work a catalogue up in the wooden horse. (Pausan., 2, 18.- Virg of countries, cities, nations, and colonies, but, as op- En., 2, 10.) portunity offered, he described the characters of dif ferent nations, mentioned the founders of cities, and related the mythological traditions connected with each place, mingled with grammatical and etymological remarks. All this appears not in the meager abridgment of Hermolaus. We have a fragment, however, remaining of the original work relative to Dodona. The best edition of Stephanus is that of Berkell, completed by Gronovius, L. Bat., 1688, fol. There is a very recent edition of the text by Westermann, Lips, 1839, 8vo. (Schöll, Hist. Lit. Gr., vol. 7, p. 36.)

STHENOBEA, a daughter of Jobates, king of Lycia, who married Protus, king of Argos. She became enamoured of Bellerophon, who had taken refuge at het husband's court after the murder of his brother; and when he refused, she falsely accused him before Protus of attempts upon her virtue. (Vid. Bellerophon) STILICHO, a Vandalic general, in the service of the Emperor Theodosius the Great, whose niece Serena he married. Theodosius having bequeathed the empire of the East to his son Arcadius, and that of the West to his second son Honorius, the former was left under the care of Rufinus, and the latter under the guardianship of Stilicho. No sooner was Theodosius removed by death, than Rufinus stirred up an invasion of the Goths, in order to procure the sole dominion; but Stilicho put down this scheme, and effected the destruction of his rival. After suppressing a revolt in Africa, he marched against Alaric, whom he signally defeated at Pollentia. After this, in A.D. 406, he re

Italy under Rhadagasius, a Hun or Vandal leader, who formerly accompanied Alaric, and effected the entire destruction of the force and its leader. Either from motives of policy or from state necessity, he then entered into a treaty with Alaric, whose pretensions upon the Roman treasury for a subsidy he warmly supported. This conduct excited a suspicion of his treachery on the part of Honorius, who massaered all his friends during his absence. He received intelligence of this fact at the camp of Bononia (Bologna), whence he was obliged to flee to Ravenna. Here he took shelter in a church, from which he was inveigled by a solemn oath that no harm was intended him, and was conveyed to immediate execution, which he endured in a manner worthy his great military character. Stilicho was charged with the design of dethroning Honorius, in order to advance his son Eucherius in his place; and the memory of this distinguished captain has been treated by the ecclesiastical writers with great severity. Zosimus, however, although otherwise unfavourable to him, acquits him of the treason which was laid to his charge; and he will live in the poetry of Claudian as the most distinguished commander of his age. (Encyclop. Americ, vol. 12, p. 7.-Gibbon, Decline and Fall, c. 29, seq.)

STESICHORUS, a Greek lyric poet, born at Himera, in Sicily, and who flourished about 570 B.C. He lived in the time of Phalaris, and was contemporary with Sappho, Alcæus, and Pittacus. (Clinton, Fast. Hellen, p. 5.) His special business was the training and directing of choruses, and he assumed the name of Stesichorus, or "leader of choruses," his original name being Tisias. This occupation must have re-pelled an invasion of barbarians, who penetrated into mained hereditary in his family in Himera; a younger Stesichorus of Himera came, in Olympiad 73.1 (B.C 485), to Greece as a poet (Marm., Par., ep. 50); and a third Stesichorus of Himera was victor at Athens in Olympiad 102.3 (B.C. 370). The eldest of them, Stesichorus-Tisias, made a great change in the artistical form of the chorus. He it was who first broke the monotonous alternation of the strophe and antistrophe through a whole poem, by the introduction of the epode, differing in measure, and by this means made the chorus stand still. The chorus of Stesichorus seems to have consisted of a combination of several rows or members of eight dancers: the number eight appears, indeed, from various traditions, to have been, as it were, consecrated by him. The musical accompaniment was the cithara. On his arrangement of the strophe, antistrophe, and epode, was founded the Greek proverb, "the three things of Stesichorus” (rà τpía Ernoixópov). His compositions, which consisted of hymns in honour of the gods, odes in praise of heroes, lyrico-epic poems, such as an 'I2iov Tépois ("Destruction of Troy"), an Orestiad, &c., were written in the Doric dialect, and are all now lost except a few fragments. Stesichorus possessed, according to Dionysius, all the excellences and graces of Pindar and Simonides, and surpassed them both in STILPO, a philosopher of Megara, who flourished the grandeur of his subjects, in which he well pre- about 336 B.C. He was not only celebrated for his served the characteristics of manners and persons; eloquence and skill in dialectics, but for the success and Quintilian represents him as having displayed the with which he applied the moral precepts of philossublimity of his genius by the selection of weighty ophy to the correction of his natural propensities. topics, such as important wars and the actions of Though in his youth he had been much addicted to great commanders, in which he sustained with his lyre intemperance and licentious pleasures, after he had the dignity of epic poetry. Accordingly, Alexander ranked himself among philosophers he was never the Great ranks him among those who were the proper known to violate the laws of sobriety or chastity. study of princes. He was the inventor of the fable With respect to riches he exercised a virtuous moderof the horse and the stag, which Horace and some ation. When Ptolemy Soter, at the taking of Megaother poets have imitated, and this he wrote to pre-ra, presented him with a large sum of money, and revent his countrymen from making an alliance with Phalaris. The best collections of the fragments of Stesichorus are given by Blomfield, in the Museum Criticum, No. 6, p. 256; and by Kleine, Berol., 1828, 8vo. They are also found in Gaisford's Poeta Minores Græci, ed. Lips., vol. 3, p. 336-348. (Muller, Hist. Lit. Gr, p. 198.)

quested him to accompany him to Egypt, he returned the greater part of the present, and chose to retire, during Ptolemy's stay at Megara, to the island of Agina. Afterward, when Megara was again taken by Demetrius, son of Antigonus, the conqueror ordered the soldiers to spare the house of Stilpo; and, if anything should be taken from him in the hurry of the plunder, STHENELUS, I. a king of Mycenæ, son of Perseus to restore it. So great was the fame of Stilpo, that, and Andromeda. He married Nicippe, the daughter when he visited Athens, the people ran out of their of Pelops, by whom he had two daughters, and a son shops to see him, and even the most eminent philosocalled Eurystheus. The name of this son is connect-phers of Athens took pleasure in attending upon his

discourses. On moral topics Stilpo is said to have taught, that the highest felicity consists in a mind free from the dominion of passion, a doctrine similar to that of the Stoics. (Enfield's History of Philosophy, vol. 1, p. 202.)

ion of some of the Discourses, made the number of chapters amount to one hundred and twenty-five, or, rather, one hundred and twenty-seven. Each chapter of the Ecloga, and each discourse, has a particulur title, under which the author has arranged his extracts, commencing with the poets, and passing from them, in order, to orators, philosophers, physicians, &c. The source whence each extract is obtained is indicated in the margin. These extracts are drawn from more than five hundred authors, both poets and prose writers, whose works have in a great measure perished. We find here, in particular, numerous passages from the ancient comic writers.-The best edition of the Ecloga is that of Heeren, Götting., 1792, 2 vols. (in 4) 8vo. It contains a very valuable dissertation by the editor, on the sources whence Stobæus obtained his materials. (Commentatio de Fontibus Eclogarum Joannis Stobai.)—The best edition of the Discourses is that of Gaisford, under the title, Joannis Stobai Florilegium, Oxon., 1822, 4 vols. 8vo. (Schöll, Hist. Lit. Gr., vol. 7, p. 133, seqq.)

STOBEUS, Joannes, a native of Stobi, in Macedonia, whence his name Stobæus. The particulars of his life are unknown, and we are even ignorant of the age in which he lived. All that can be said of his era is, that he was subsequent to Hierocles of Alexandrea, since he has left us extracts from his works; and as he cites no more recent writer, it is probable that he lived not long after him. Stobæus had read much; he had acquired the habit of reading with a pen in his hand, and of making extracts from whatever seemed to him remarkable. Having made a large collection of these extracts, he arranged them in systematic order for the use of his son, whose education seems to have constituted the father's principal employment. This was the origin of a collection in four books, which he published under the title of 'Avbohóуiov EKλογῶν, ἀποφθεγμάτων, ὑποθηκῶν ("' An Anthology of STOBI, a city of Macedonia, in the district of Pæonia,. Extracts, Sentences, and Precepts"). This work has to the north of Edessa, and not far from the junction come down to us, but under a form somewhat differ- of the Erigonus and Axius. Livy informs us that ent, and which has consequently embarrassed the com- Philip wished to found a new city in its vicinity, to be mentators. We have three books of extracts made called Perses, after his eldest son (39, 54). On the by Stobæus, but they are given in the manuscripts as conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, Stobi was two distinct works: one composed of two books, the made the depôt of the salt with which the Dardani were other of a single one. The former is entitled "Phys- supplied from that country (45, 29). At a later period ical, Dialectic, and Moral Sclections," the latter it became not only a Roman colony, but a Roman "Discourses." There exists, however, some confu- municipium, a privilege rarely conferred beyond the sion in this respect in the manuscripts. Some, which limits of Italy. (Plin., 4, 10.-Ulp., Dig. de Cons. contain merely the Ecloga or Extracts, call them the lex ult.) In the reign of Constantine, Stobi was confirst and second books of Stobæus, without any more sidered as the chief town of Macedonia Secunda, or particular designation. Others give both works the Salutaris, as it was then called. (Hierocl., Syn., p. title of Anthology.-In the Ecloga and Discourses, 641.-Malch., Exc. Legat., p. 61.) Stobi was the Stobæus appears to have proposed to himself two dif- birthplace of Joannes Stobæus, the author of the Greek ferent objects. The Ecloga form, so to speak, an his- Florilegium which bears his name. The modern Istib torical work, because they make us acquainted with is said to mark the site of the ancient city. (Crathe opinions of ancient authors on questions of a phys-mer's Ancient Greece, vol. 1, p. 271.—Bischoff und ical, speculative, and moral nature, whereas the Dis- Möller, Wörterb. der Geogr., p. 931.) courses constitute merely a moral work. It is on account of this diversity that some critics have thought that the Ecloga never formed part of the Anthology, but originally made a separate work, and that the third and fourth books of the Anthology are lost. This hy-three. They are called Prote (Parquerolles), Mese pothesis, however, seems at variance with the account that Photius gives of the Anthology of Stobæus. "The first book," says he, "is entirely physical; the commencement of the second is strictly philosophical (20yikós), but the greater part is moral. The third STOICI, a celebrated sect of philosophers, founded by and fourth books are almost entirely devoted to moral Zeno of Citium. They received their name from the and political subjects." It would seem from this that portico (oroá) where the philosopher delivered his lecit is wrong to divide the extracts of Stobæus into two tures. This was the "Pacile," adorned with various works, and that we possess actually, under two titles, paintings from the pencil of Polygnotus and other emhis Anthology in four books, excepting that the copy-inent masters, and hence was called, by way of emiists have united the third and fourth books into one.It is from Photius also that we learn the object which Stobæus had in view when he made these selections, STRABO, I. a Roman cognomen in the Fannian, for we have not the beginning of the first book, where Pompeian, and other families. It was first applied to no doubt it was stated. Stobæus had devoted this those whose eyes were distorted, but afterward became part to a eulogium on philosophy, which was followed a general name.-II. A celebrated geographer, born at by an historical sketch of the ancient schools, and of Amasea in Pontus. The year of his birth is not extheir doctrines in relation to geometry, music, and actly known, but it may be placed about fifty-four B.C. arithmetic of this chapter we have only the end, in (Clinton, Fasti Hellenici, pt. 2, p. 277.) He studied which the subject of arithmetic is treated. The object at Nyssa under Aristodemus, at Amisus under Tyranof Stobæus, according to Photius, was to erect a col- nion, and at Seleucia under Xenarchus. He then proumn which might serve as a landmark to his son Sep-ceeded to Alexandrea, and attached himself first to the timius during the latter's course through life. The peripatetic Bathus of Sidon; but Athenodorus of Tarfirst book is subdivided into sixty chapters; the sec- sus eventually gained him over to the doctrines of the ond contained forty-six, but we have only the first Porch. He then visited various parts of Asia Minor, nine. The third book, or the first of the Discourses, Syria, Phoenicia, and Egypt as far as Syene and the was, in the time of Photius, composed of forty-two Cataracts of the Nile. In this latter country he formed chapters, and the second of fifty-eight. In the manu- an intimate acquaintance with Ælius Gallus, the Roscripts these one hundred chapters form only one man governor. In the year 24 B.C. this general book: the copyists, however, have, by their subdivis-undertook, by order of Augustus, an expedition into

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STŒCHADES, islands in the Mediterranean, off the coast of Gaul, and in a southeast direction from Telo Martius or Toulon, now Isles d'Hieres. Strabo and Ptolemy make them five in number, but Pliny only

(Porto Cros), and Hypea (du Levant or Titan). They are said to have their name from their being ranged on the same line (oroixos—Plin, 3, 5.—Mela, 2, 7).

nence, the Porch. An account of the Stoic doctrine will be found at the end of the article Zeno.

Arabia. At a subsequent period, Strabo travelled king that Strabo engaged in this task, as is sufficiently over Greece, Macedonia, and Italy with the exception proved by his own elaborate introduction. How many of Cisalpine Gaul and Liguria. It is important to years were employed upon it is not certain; but we determine the extent of Strabo's travels, that we may are sure, from the incidental mention made in different know when he speaks as an eyewitness, and when passages of historical events widely distant from each he merely copies the accounts of his predecessors, or other, that it occupied a considerable portion of his gives the narratives of other travellers. At an ad- life. It is impossible, indeed, to read any of his larvanced period of life he compiled a work on Geogra- ger descriptions without feeling the advantages posphy (Tεwypadika), in seventeen books, which has come sessed by an eyewitness over a mere compiler. The down to us complete, with the exception of the seventh strong and expressive outlines which he draws conbook, which is imperfect. It is remarkable that, du- vey a lively idea, not merely of the figure and dimenring a space of near five hundred years, from the time sions, but of the surface and general character, of exof Herodotus to that of Strabo, so little should have tensive districts. These outlines are carefully filled been added to the science of geography. The con-up by a methodical and often minute survey of the quests of the Romans westward did certainly bring whole region, marking distinctly its coasts, its towns, them acquainted with parts of Europe hitherto little rivers, and mountains; the produce of the soil, the known; but in the East, neither the Macedonian nor condition and manners of the inhabitants, their origin, the Roman expeditions seem to have brought much to language, and traffic; and in the more civilized parts light that was before unknown of the state of Asia; of the world, in the states of Greece especially, we while in Africa, as Rennell justly observes, geography meet with continual information respecting persons lost ground. In the course of this period, indeed, and events, the memory of which is sacred to every many writers on this subject appeared; but, whatever one at all conversant with the writers of that extraorwere their merits (and the merits even of the most dinary people. But it is not merely from the number eminent among them seem to be not highly rated by and authenticity of the facts which it communicates Strabo), it is certain that they are all lost. We may that this work derives its value. Every page bears collect, indeed, from a curious circumstance little evidence of a philosophical and reflecting mind; a known or regarded, that no complete or systematic mind disciplined by science, and accustomed to trace work on geography at that time existed for it appears the causes and connexion of things, as well in the from two or three of Cicero's letters to Atticus, that he province of physical phenomenon, as in the more once entertained thoughts of writing a treatise himself intricate and varying system of human affairs. In on the subject. He was deterred, however, he says, this respect Strabo bears a strong resemblance to whenever he considered it, by the magnitude of the Polybius. But with the fondness of that historian undertaking, and by perceiving how severely even for reflections and his steady love of truth, he has Eratosthenes had been censured by the writers who not copied the formality of his digressions, which succeeded him. In fact, he was probably restrained by so often interrupt the flow of the history, and which a consciousness of his own incompetency in point of would be yet more unsuited in a geographical work. science, of which he makes a pretty broad confession to The reasonings and reflections of Strabo are just those his friend; and whoever values the reputation of Cice- which would naturally be excited in a mind prero cannot regret that it was never risked on a system viously well informed by the scenes over which he of geography, to be got up, as he himself hints it was was travelling; but they never tempt him to lose intended to be, during a short summer tour among his sight of his main purpose, the collection and arcountry-houses in Italy. It is not, however, merely rangement of facts. There is a gravity, a plainness, to the respective character of the two individuals that a sobriety, and good sense in all his remarks, which we must attribute the inferiority of the geography of constantly remind us that they are subordinate and inHerodotus, in all essential requisites, to that of Strabo. cidental, suggested immediately by the occasion; and Much undoubtedly is owing to the manners and com- they are delivered with a tincture of literature, such as plexion of the times in which they respectively lived. a well-educated man cannot fail of imparting to any The former came to the task with few materials sup- subject. On these accounts Strabo would be entitled plied to his hands. Everything was to be collected to the perusal of every scholar, even if the geographiby his own industry, without the aid of previous his- cal information were less abundant and authentic than tory, without political documents or political authori- it really is.-Strabo lived prior to any arrangement of ty. The taste, moreover, and the habits of the people the distances on the globe by measures taken from defor whom he wrote, which must ever have a powerful grees of longitude and latitude. But this writer and influence over the composition of any writer, demanded his predecessor in the same branch of science were other qualities than rigid authenticity, and a judicious not unacquainted with the practice of measuring the selection of facts. It should be remembered that he distance from the equator as from a fixed line, by was hardly yet emerged from the story-telling age; which the comparatively northerly or southerly situa the pleasure of wondering had not yet been superse- tions of places might be determined; nor were they ded by the pleasure of knowing; and the nine deities ignorant of some methods by which the longitude or who give name to his books might be allowed to im- distance of places to the east or west of each other part some share of their privilege of fiction, when- might be estimated. But it was reserved for Ptolemy ever sober truth has been insufficient to complete or to reduce these observations into a regular system and adorn his narrative. Before the age of Augustus, to a tabular form, by which the situation of any one however, an entire revolution had been effected in the place, if correctly ascertained, might be compared with intellectual habits and literary pursuits of men. The that of any other, and also with its distance from the world had become in a manner, what it now is, a read-equator and from the first meridian, drawn through ing world. Books of every kind were to be had in Ferro, in the Canary or Fortunate Islands, as being every place. Accordingly, it became the chief busi- the most westerly point of the earth known at that ness of writers who projected any extensive work, to time.-The ancient astronomers and geographers could examine and compare what had been already written; not but be conscious how defective were their instruto weigh probabilities; to adjust and reconcile apparent ments for observing the heavenly bodies; and how difficulties; and to decide between contending authori- much greater dependance might be placed on their ties, as well as to collect and methodise a multitude mechanical measurement of distances, to the accuracy of independent facts, and to mould them into one reg- of which we have reason to think they paid great atular and consistent form. It was not without a just tention, than on their celestial observations, to ascersense of the magnitude and difficulty of the underta- | tain the truth of which they had so little artificial as

sistance. The proportion of the length of the gnomon to that of its meridian shadow at the solstice and the equinoxes, afforded the principal method of determining the distance of places from the equator, and these were, indeed, under a clear sky, a bright sun, and continued opportunities of repeating observations, laid down, in many instances, more nearly to the truth than could be expected from so simple and so rude an instrument. Sull, however, they were liable to great uncertainty. The penumbra at the extremity of the shadow made the proportions doubtful. The semi-diameter of the sun (although Cleomedes seemed to be aware that this should be taken into the account) does not appear to be added to the altitude, and the circumstances, less important, indeed, though not to be neglected, of parallax and refraction, were altogether unknown. Instances of the incorrectness of gnomonic or sciothenic observations may be given, too gross to be ascribed to any of these defects, and eviSently owing to inaccuracy in the observers. Strabo mentions, in no less than four places, that the same proportion of the length of the gnomon to its solstitial shadow was found at Byzantium and at Marseilles, though the former was situated in 41° 11', and the other in 43° 17′ of latitude, a difference of no less than 136' on the equator, equal to 158 English miles; and this fact is reported on the authority of Hipparchus and Eratosthenes, in a case, too, which was obvious to the senses, and depended neither on hypothesis nor calculation. It is more extraordinary that this mistake, after being adopted by Ptolemy, should be continued down to ages not very remote from our own. A still greater error is to be found in Straho respecting the situation of Carthage. He says that the proportion of the length of the gnomon to that of the equinoctial shadow is as cleven to seven. This gives by plane trigonometry a latitude of 32° 20', which is very near to the one adopted by Ptolemy. The true latitude of Carthage, according to the best observa-stadia. The Caspian Sea is a gulf. The Sacrum tions, is 36 5'. The error, therefore, is 272', or 313 English miles. These, and other remarks which might be here made, tend fully to show, that the ancient geographers are more deserving of praise when they express distances by measurements, in the correctness of which they excelled, than when they give them by calculations or observations, the principles of which they understood, but had not the means of reducing to practice. (Quarterly Review, vol. 5, p. 274, seqq.)But to return more immediately to Strabo. A circumstance which cannot fail to surprise us is the little success with which Strabo's work appears to have met among the ancients, as far, at least, as we may infer from the silence which their writers for the most part preserve in relation to his labours. Marcianus of Heraclea, Athenæus, and Harpocration are the only ancient authors that cite him. Pliny and Pausanias do not even appear to have been acquainted with him by name. Josephus and Plutarch make mention of Strabo, but it is only to speak of his Historical Memoirs. The celebrity of Strabo dates from the middle ages it was then so universal, that the custom arose of designating him by the simple title of the Geographer."-The Geography of Strabo consists of two parts; the first, cosmographical, giving a description of the world, and comprising the first and second books; the second, chorographical, furnishing a detailed account of particular countries. This latter part commences with the third and ends with the seventeenth book; and thus consists of fifteen books, of which eight are devoted to Europe, six to Asia, and one to Africa. The first book of the Geography of Strabo contains the general introduction to the work. In it the author shows the importance and utility of geographical studies. On this occasion he treats of the extent of Homer's geographical knowledge, and defends him against his detractors, even to such a degree

as to support the authority of the fables related by the bard. After Homer, Strabo passes in review the works of Anaximander, Hecatæus, Democritus, and Eudoxus of Cnidus: he commends the latter for his mathematical acquirements and for everything he relates concerning Greece, while he censures him for being fabulous in his account of the Scythians. He names Dicæarchus among the writers that have treated of general geography, whereas we merely know that he wrote the Biog 'EZAάdoc. Strabo ends his list of ancient geographers with Ephorus of Cuma; Eratosthenes, Hipparchus, Polybius, and Posidonius forming the class of modern ones. His criticism on the first two books of Eratosthenes furnishes him with an opportunity of indulging in some researches relative to the adventures of Ulysses as given by Homer, the degree of acquaintance which the poet had with Egypt, and also the revolutions which the surface of the earth has undergone.In the second book Strabo continues his criticism on the work of Eratosthenes, and takes up the third book of that production. He makes many corrections on Hipparchus, and defends Eratosthenes against many unjust criticisms. He then proceeds to an examination of the works of Posidonius and Polybius. The remainder of the book treats of the knowledge requisite for a geographer, and particularly that of a mathematical nature: he then treats of the figure of the earth, its general divisions and climates. He states that the earth has the form of a globe, or, rather, seems to have such a form. The habitable portion of the earth resembles, according to him, a chlamys or military cloak; it is contained between two parallels, one of which passes through lerne or Ireland, and the other through what is now the island of Ceylon. The earth is immoveable and in the centre of the universe. The length of the earth from the equator to the north is 38.100 stadia, that of the habitable world 29,000. The breadth is about 70,000

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Promontorium (Cape St. Vincent) is the most westerly point of Europe.-With the third book commences the chorographical part. Spain is the first country that occupies Strabo's attention; he first describes Bætica, then Lusitania and the northern coast as far as the Pyrenees, then the southern coast from the Columns of Hercules to the same range, and, finally, the islands in the neighbourhood of Spain, the Baleares, Gades, and the Cassiterides. In giving the description of this country Strabo follows three writers who had travelled in it. The first of these is Artemidorus, who boasted of having pushed his way as far as Gades, although the account which he gives of the phenomena that there attended the setting of the sun does not seem to indicate one who had observed them himself: this traveller was very exact in his determination of distances. The second source whence Strabo derived his information concerning Spain, and his principal guide in this book, is Posidonius. The third is Polybius. Strabo, however, notes the changes which had taken place since the period of the lastmentioned writer. Independently of these three authorities, our geographer cites Ephorus, Eratosthenes, Timosthenes, Asclepiades of Myrlea, and Athenodorus.-The fourth book is taken up with the description of Gaul, Britain, Ireland, Thule, and the Alps. After having treated of the four grand divisions of Gaul, Narbonensis, Aquitania, Lugdunensis, and Belgica, Strabo gives some general details on this country and its inhabitants. The Alps afford him an opportunity of treating of the Ligurians, Salyes, Rhætii, Vindelicii, Taurisci, and other inhabitants of these mountains. For his description of Gaul Strabo could easily obtain information from persons who had filled public offices in that country (for in his day this country was completly subject to the Romans), as well as from those who had traded thither. In other respects

Cæsar was his principal guide, especially in the de- rus, and Hypsicrates of Amisa are only cited for isoscription of the Silva Arduenna, and the account of lated facts. The two latter appear to have left histothe manners and customs of the Germans in general ries of the war with Mithradates. Illyricum is one of He makes use, also, of the same geographers that had the countries which Strabo himself traversed. — From aided him in the third book. For example, his de- what he says on the subject, we see that in Aristotle's scription of the Rhone and Isere, of their embou- work on Governments, the constitutions of Acarnania, chures, and of the countries lying between these rivers, Megaris, Etolia, and Opuntia were, among others, appears to be taken from Artemidorus. In the de- considered. Polybius and Posidonius have supplied scription of Gallia Narbonensis, of which Cæsar does Strabo with his materials for these regions; Theonot treat, Polybius is his authority. In what relates pompus and Ephorus were his guides in Epirus, and to the ancient constitution of Massilia (Marseille) he Philochorus in what relates to Dodona. He cites, also, has followed Polybius, or perhaps Aristotle's work on a certain Cineas; but whatever he drew from this otherGovernments. Strabo, it is true, does not cite the wise unknown author has perished with the end of the latter writer on this occasion, but we see from another book.-The eighth book, and the two immediately folpassage that he had consulted his work. (Strabo, lowing, contain Greece in general, and the Peloponne321.) The other accounts that he gives respecting sus in particular. In the description of Greece, StraMassilia are obtained from travellers with whom bo takes the Homeric poems for a basis. In the choStrabo was personally acquainted. He gives the nar- rographical part he consults also Ephorus and Polybrative of Timagenes, according to whom the treasure ius; in the physical part, Posidonius and Hipparchus ; which Cæpio found at Tolosa made part of the plun- in the description of bays and harbours, Artemidorus der which the Tectosages had carried off from Delphi. and Timosthenes; and, in addition to all this, draws With respect to Britain, the description of which fol- largely on his own information as a traveller in this lows that of Gaul, as this country was not yet sub- country. Passing on to the description of Elis, he jected to the Romans, Strabo had no other sources of cites, for the fabulous ages, Homer and his commeninformation than the fifth book of Cæsar's Commentators, Apollodorus, and Demetrius of Scepsis, as well taries, and the verbal accounts of travellers. He as the other early poets; he relies principally, however, confesses, also, that he has but scanty materials for Ire- upon Ephorus. The other writers consulted by him land. In speaking of Thule, he makes mention of for his account of the Peloponnesus are Philochorus, Pytheas, whom he unjustly considers as a writer deal- Callisthenes, Hellanicus, Demetrius of Scepsis, Theoing altogether in fable. For the description of the pompus, Thucydides, and Aristotle. What he says of Alps, and of their inhabitants, which terminates the the Achæan league is taken from Polybius. The disfourth book, his authority was Polybius.-The fifth tances between places are obtained from Artemidorus and sixth books are devoted to Italy. The sixth ends and Eratosthenes. In the ninth book he describes with a survey of the Roman power. With the ex- Megaris, Attica, Boeotia, Phocis, Locris, and Thessaception of Cisalpine Gaul and Liguria, Strabo knew ly, as well as Hellas, properly so called. The dimenItaly from personal observation. Polybius is his prin- sions of Attica are taken from Eudoxus, the mathemacipal guide among the writers whom he cites, partic- tician; its history from the Atthidographi, among whom ularly for Cisalpine Gaul: in his description of Ligu- he cites Philochorus and Andron. He has consulted, ria he quotes also from Posidonius. What he says also, the memoirs of Demetrius Phalereus, for the purrespecting the origin of the Etrurians is found in He-pose of learning the condition of Attica during the time rodotus his account of the early kings of Rome is probably abridged from Dionysius of Halicarnassus. In treating of the Etrurians, he makes a digression concerning the Pelasgi, and cites Ephorus, Anticlides, and others. For the description of Etruria he has consulted Polybius, Eratosthenes, and Artemidorus. In giving the dimensions of Corsica and Sardinia, he refers, for the first time, to an author whom he merely cites under the title of a 66 Chorographer," but whom he distinguishes from Eratosthenes, Polybius, and Artemidorus. This is a Roman writer, for his measurements are not in stadia, but in miles; and perhaps he is the same with the Agrippa who prepared a description of the Roman empire, which Augustus caused to be placed in the portico commenced by his sister. (Plin, 3, 2.) Fabius Pictor and Cæcilius are his authorities for what he says respecting the origin of the Romans; and for the rest of Central Italy and Magna Græcia, he follows Polybius, Artemidorus, Ephorus, Timæus, Apollodorus, but, above all, Antiochus of Syracuse. For Sicily he cites Posidonius, Artemidorus, Ephorus, and Timæus. The seventh book commences with a description of the countries situate along the Ister or Danube, and inhabited by the Germans, Cimbri, Getæ, and Tauri: it then proceeds to notice the regions between this river, the Euxine, the Adriatic, Illyricum, and Epirus. The chapters on Thrace and Macedonia are lost. Here Strabo was unable to procure as good authorities as in the preceding books, and he himself confesses that he was wandering in the dark. Strabo seems to have had under his eyes an historian who treated of the wars between the Romans and Germans, and who was subsequent to Cæsar. The name of this writer appears to have been Asinius. All that Strabo relates concerning the Cimbri is taken from Posidonius; for Ephorus the grammarian, Apollodo

of that individual. For Boeotia, Locris, and Phocis, Ephorus and others have been his authorities. What he gives respecting Thessaly is a kind of commentary on those passages in Homer where mention is made of the Thessalians.-The tenth book is occupied with the rest of Greece; Euboea, Arcarnania, Ætolia, Crete, the Cyclades, Sporades, &c. For the antiquities of Euboea, Homer and his commentators have been consulted; for its history, Theopompus and Aristotle. When he treats of Acarnania and Etolia, he follows Homer and another epic poet, probably a Cyclic bard, who had composed an Alcmeonid, which Ephorus had under his eyes. His other sources of information were Apollodorus, Demetrius of Scepsis, and Artemidorus. Before passing to Crete, Strabo makes a long digression respecting the Curetes. Among the crowd of writers who had treated of the subject, he distinguishes Demetrius of Scepsis, from whom he appears to have derived the account that he gives respecting the religious ceremonies of the Cretans; he refers, also, to Archemachus of Eubœa, an historian of an unknown epoch, cited frequently by Athenæus, to Pherecydes of Scyros, Acusilas of Argos, who gave a prose translation of the poetry of Hesiod, and to Stesimbrotus of Thasos. For the description of Crete his principal authority was Sosicrates. He names also Eudoxus, Artemidorus, Hieronymus of Cardia, and Staphylus of Naucratis. What relates to the government of Crete is taken from Ephorus. The account of the islands of the Egean is the result of Strabo's own observations. -The eleventh book begins the description of Asia. Strabo bounds this part of the world by the Tanais, the Ocean, and what is now the Isthmus of Suez; but he believed it to be much less extensive than it is in reality. He was unacquainted with the vast regions of Asiatic Russia, and with those of Central Asia occu