PYRAMUS, I. a youth of Babylon. (Vid. Thisbe.) -II. A river of Cilicia Campestris, rising in Mount Taurus, and falling into the Sinus Issicus. It is now the Geiloon. This river forces its way, by a deep and narrow channel, through the barrier of Taurus; and such was the quantity of soil which it carried down, that an oracle affirmed that one day it would reach the sacred isle of Cyprus. (Strab., 536.) This, how-writers, or give any credit to the general history of his ever, has not taken place; but a remarkable change has occurred with respect to the course of this river, which now finds its way into the sea, twenty-three miles more to the east, in the Gulf of Scanderoon. (Cramer's Asia Minor, vol. 2, p. 351.)

PYRRHUS, I. a son of Achilles and Deïdamia, the daughter of King Lycomedes, who received this name from the yellowness of his hair. He was also called Neoptolemus, or new warrior, because he came to the Trojan war in the last years of the celebrated siege of the capital of Troas. He was brought up, and rePYRRHA, I. a daughter of Epimetheus and Pandora, mained at the court of his maternal grandfather until and wife of Deucalion. (Vid. Deucalion.)-II. A after his father's death. The Greeks, then, according promontory of Thessaly, on the western coast of the to an oracle, which had declared that Troy could not Sinus Pagasæus, and a short distance below Demetri-be taken unless one of the descendants of acus were It is now Cape Ankistri.-III. A rock, with an- among the besiegers, despatched Ulysses and Phoenix other in its vicinity named Deucalion, near the prom-to Scyros for the young prince. He had no sooner arontory mentioned in the preceding paragraph. (Stra-rived before Troy, than, having paid a visit to the tomb bo, 435.) of Achilles, he was appointed to accompany Ulysses in

PYRRHO, a celebrated Greek philosopher, a native his expedition to Lemnos, for the purpose of prevailing of Elea. In his youth he practised the art of paint-on Philoctetes to repair with the arrows of Hercules ing; but, either through disinclination, or because his to the scene of action. Pyrrhus greatly signalized mind aspired to higher pursuits, he passed over from the school of painting to that of philosophy. He studied and admired the writings of Democritus, and had, as his first preceptor, Bryson, the son of Stilpo, a disciple of Clinomachus. After this he became a disciple of Anaxarchus, who was contemporary with Alexander, and he accompanied his master, in the train of Alexander, into Asia. Here he conversed with the Brahmans and Gymnosophists, imbibing from their doctrine whatever might seem favourable to his natural disposition towards doubting: a disposition which

said to deserve the sarcastic remark of Antigonus, wholesome preliminary ceremonies, among which was that compared him to a gambler, "who makes many good throws, but never seems to know when he has the best of the game." (Plut., Vit. Pyrrh.—Encyclop. Metropol., div. 2, vol. 1, p. 667.)

of circumcision, hoping thereby to discourage him from prosecuting his design. Pythagoras, however, executed all their injunctions with such wonderful patience and perseverance, that he obtained their entire PYTHAGORAS, a celebrated philosopher of Samos. confidence, and was instructed in their most recondite Great uncertainty exists as to the year when he was doctrine. He passed twenty-two years in Egypt. born. Some, as, for example, La Nauze and Freret, During this time he made himself perfectly master of make it to have been the first year of the 43d Olym- the three kinds of writing which were used in that piad. Bentley is in favour of the fourth year of the country, the epistolary, the hieroglyphic, and the symsame Olympiad, Meiner contends for the second of bolical; and, having obtained access to their most the 49th, Dodwell for the fourth of the 52d. There is learned men, in every celebrated college of priests, he a difference of sixty-three years between the extremes became intimately conversant with their ancient recof these dates. Some authors assert that all which ords, and gained an accurate knowledge of their doccan be stated with any degree of certainty is, that sev- trines concerning the origin of things, with their asenty-five or eighty-five years of the life of Pythagoras tronomy and geometry, and, in short, with Egyptian (for even the duration of his life is a subject of con- learning in its whole extent. To his stay in Egypt troversy) fall within the one hundred and forty-two he was most likely indebted, not so much for any pos years that elapsed between A.C. 608 and A.C. 466. itive knowledge or definite opinion, as for hints which Visconti gives the preference to Eusebius, who, in roused his curiosity, and impressions which decided fixing the death of Pythagoras in the 496th year B.C., the bias of his mind. In the science of the Egyptians expresses his doubts respecting the advanced age to he perhaps found little to borrow; but in their political which the philosopher is said to have attained. By his and religious institutions he saw a mighty engine, such mother's side he is said to have been connected with as he might wish to wield for nobler purposes. Many one of the oldest families in the island. But his fa- writers who flourished after the commencement of the ther, Mnesarchus, was generally believed to have been Christian era, both pagan and Christian, have related a foreigner, and not of purely Greek origin, though it that Pythagoras, immediately after he left Egypt, viswas disputed whether he was a Phoenician, or belonged ited the Persian and Chaldæan Magi, and travelled so to the Tyrrhenian Pelasgians of Lemnos or Imbros, and far into the East as to converse with the Indian Gymto a branch, therefore, of the Pelasgian race. If we nosophists. The occasion of this journey is thus redismiss the tales of Iamblichus concerning the early lated by Iamblichus: "After spending twenty-two wisdom, gravity, and temperance of Pythagoras, which years in Egypt, he was conveyed by the victorious are said to have been such as to have filled all men army of Cambyses, among a numerous train of capwith admiration, to have commanded respect and rev- tives, to Babylon, where he made himself perfectly acerence from gray hairs, and even to have led many to quainted with the learning and philosophy of the East; assert that he was the son of God (Iamb., Vit. Pyth., and, after the expiration of twelve years, when he was n. 6), we meet with no other credible particulars of in the sixtieth year of his age, he returned to Samos." his childhood and early education, but that he was first Cicero, Eusebius, Lactantius, and Valerius Maximus, instructed in his own country by Creophilus, and though they say nothing of the captivity, agree that he afterward by Pherecydes in the island of Scyros. visited the Persian Magi. Some have even maintain(Thirlwall's Greece, vol. 2, p. 140, in notis.) When ed that in this journey he attended upon the instruche had paid the honours to his preceptor, for whom he tions of the celebrated Zoroaster; while others, who appears to have entertained a high respect, he returned have placed the life of Zoroaster in an earlier period to Samos, and again studied under the direction of than that of Pythagoras, have asserted that the latter his first master. Much is said by Iamblichus and conversed with certain Jewish priests, who were at other later biographers of Pythagoras's early journey that time in captivity at Babylon, and by this means into Ionia, and his visits to Thales and Anaximander; become intimately acquainted with the Jewish laws but we find no ancient account of his journey, nor any and customs. After all, however, there is great reatraces of its effects on his doctrine, which differs es- son to suspect the truth of the whole narrative of sentially from that of the Ionic school. On his way Pythagoras's journey into the East; for the relation is to Egypt, Iamblichus asserts that he visited Phoenicia, encumbered with inextricable chronological difficuland conversed with the descendants of Mochus and ties. The whole proof of the reality of this expedition other priests of that country, and was initiated into rests either upon the evidence of certain Alexandrean their peculiar mysteries. And it may seem not en- Platonists, who were desirous of exalting as much as tirely improbable that he might wish to be farther ac- possible the reputation of those ancient philosophers to quainted with the Phoenician philosophy, of which he whom they looked back as the first oracles of wisdom; had doubtless heard a general report from his father, or upon that of certain Jewish and Christian writers, who was probably of Phoenician origin. But it is cer- who were willing to credit every tale which might seem tainly a fiction of the Alexandrean school that Pythag- to render it probable that the Pythagorean doctrine oras received his doctrines of numbers from the Phoe- was derived from the Oriental philosophers, and ultinicians, for their knowledge of numbers extended no mately from the Hebrew Scriptures. It seems, therefarther than to the practical science of arithmetic. In fore, on the whole, most reasonable to look upon the Egypt, Pythagoras was introduced, by the recommend-story of his eastern journey as a mere fiction, and to ation of Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, to Amasis, king conclude that Pythagoras never passed over from of Egypt, a great patron of learned men, particularly Egypt to the East, but returned thence immediately those of Greece, that he might the more easily obtain to Samos. Pythagoras, on his return to his native access to the colleges of the priests. The king him- island, was desirous that his fellow-citizens should self could scarcely, with all his authority, prevail upon reap the benefit of his travels and studies, and for this the priests to admit a stranger to the knowledge of purpose attempted to institute a school for their intheir sacred mysteries. The college of Heliopolis, to struction in the elements of science, but chose to whom the king's instructions were sent, referred Py- adopt the Egyptian mode of teaching, and communithagoras to the college of Memphis, as of greater anti-cate his doctrines under a symbolical form. His atquity from Memphis he was dismissed, under the same pretence, to Thebes. The Theban priests, not daring to reject the royal mandate, yet loth to comply with it, prescribed Pythagoras many severe and troub

:

tempt was unsuccessful. He then visited in succession Delos, Crete, Sparta, Elis (being present at the Olympic games celebrated in the latter district), and finally Phlius in Achaia, the residence of Leon, king

of the Phliasians. Here he first assumed the appella- | as a person partaking of a superhuman nature, and as tion of philosopher. Cicero ascribes the invention of an especial favourite of Heaven. How far he excited this term to Pythagoras. If this be correct, Pythago- or encouraged such a delusion, is in all cases very ras probably did not intend, as has been commonly difficult to determine; but it seems unquestionable imagined, to deprecate the reputation for wisdom, but that he did not rely solely on his genuine merits and to profess himself devoted to the pursuit of it. The acquirements, but put forward marvellous pretensions well-known story, which explains the origin of the which he must have been conscious had no real name, suggests an entirely false notion of his view of ground, and which, we must suspect, were calculated life, so far as it implies that he regarded contemplation to attract the veneration of the credulous. The mos as the highest end of human existence. The story is famous of these was the claim he laid to the privi as follows: It seems that Leon, charmed with the in- lege-conferred on him, as he asserted, by the go genuity and eloquence with which he discoursed on Hermes-of preserving a distinct remembrance of various topics, asked him in what art he principally many states of existence which his soul had passed excelled, to which Pythagoras replied, that he did not through; an imposture attested by his contemporary profess himself master of any art, but that he was a Xenophanes, who, as his character in this respect philosopher. Leon, struck with the novelty of the stands much higher than that of Pythagoras, appears term, asked Pythagoras who were philosophers, and to have treated it in his elegies with deserved ridiwherein they differed from other men. Pythagoras cule. (Diog. Laert., 8, 36.)-What were the precise replied that, as in the public games, while some are motives which induced him finally to fix his residence contending for glory, and others are buying and selling among the Italian Greeks, and particularly at Crotona, in pursuit of gain, there is always a third class, who at- is only matter for conjecture. The peculiar salutend merely as spectators; so in human life, amid the brity of the air of this place, its aristocratical governvarious characters of men, there is a select number ment, a state of manners which, though falling far who, despising all other pursuits, assiduously apply short of his idea, was advantageously contrasted with themselves to the study of nature and the search after the luxury of Sybaris, might suffice to determine his wisdom; these, added Pythagoras, are the persons choice, even if there were no other circumstances in whom I denominate philosophers. Pythagoras is its condition which opened a prospect of successful generally believed to have found Polycrates ruling exertion. In fact, however, the state of parties in at Samos, on his return from his travels, and his aver- Crotona, at the time when he arrived there, seems to sion to the tyrant's government was sometimes as- have been singularly favourable to the undertaking signed as the motive which led him finally to quit his which he meditated. Causes of discord were at work native island. If there were any foundation for this there, as in most of the neighbouring cities, very simstory, it must probably be sought, not in any personal ilar to those which produced the struggle between the enmity between him and Polycrates-who is said to patricians and plebeians at Rome. There was a body, have furnished him with letters of recommendation to called a senate, composed of a thousand members, Amasis-but in his conviction that the power of Po- and probably representing the descendants of the more lycrates would oppose insuperable objections to his de- ancient settlers, invested with large and irresponsible signs. For it seems certain that, before he set out for authority, and enjoying privileges which had begun to the West, he had already conceived the idea to which excite discontent among the people. The power of he dedicated the remainder of his life, and only sought the oligarchy was still preponderant, but apparently for a fit place and a favourable opportunity for carry- not so secure as to render all assistance superfluous. ing it into effect. We, however, find intimations, that The arrival of a stranger outwardly neutral, who enhe did not leave Samos until he had acquired some gaged the veneration of the multitude by his priestly celebrity among the Asiatic Greeks, by the introduc- character, and by the rumour of his supernatural ention of certain mystic rites, which Herodotus repre- dowments, and who was willing to throw all his influsents as closely allied to the Egyptian, and to those ence into the scale of the government, on condition which were celebrated in Greece under the name of of exercising some control over its measures, was an Orpheus as their reputed founder. But as we cannot event which could not but be hailed with great joy by believe that the establishment of a new form of reli- the privileged class. And, accordingly, Pythagoras gion was an object that Pythagoras ever proposed to seems to have found the utmost readiness in the senhimself apart from his political views, we could only ate of Crotona to favour his designs. The real naregard these mysteries, supposing the fact ascertained, ture of these designs, and of the means by which he in the light of an essay or an experiment, by which he endeavoured to carry them into execution, is a quessounded the disposition or the capability of his coun- tion which has exercised the sagacity of many inquitrymen for the reception of other more practical doc- rers, and has been variously solved, according to the trines. The fame of his travels, his wisdom, and higher degree of importance which Pythagoras has sanctity had probably gone before him into Greece, been supposed to have attached to religion, or to phiwhere he appears to have stayed some time, partly, per- losophy, or to government. But it seems clear that haps, to enlarge his knowledge, and partly to heighten his object was not exclusively, or even predominantly his reputation. It was no doubt for the former pur- religious, or philosophical, or political, and that none of pose that he visited Crete and Sparta, where he found the objects stood in the relation of an end to the other a model of government and discipline more congenial two as its means. On the other hand, we cannot be to his habits of thinking than he could have met with satisfied with the opinion of a modern author, that the anywhere else but in Egypt or India. If, as is highly aim of Pythagoras was to exhibit the ideal of a Doprobable, he stopped on the same journey at Olympia and rian state. (Müller, Dorians, 3, 9, 15.) This is, perat Delphi, it was, perhaps, less from either curiosity or haps, in one sense more, and in another less, than he devotion, than from the desire of obtaining the sanction really attempted, and the opinion seems to affect the of the oracles, and of forming a useful connexion with character of the Dorians rather than the views of Pytheir ministers. Thus we are told that he was in- thagoras. His leading thought appears to have been, debted for many of his ethical dogmas to Themistoclea that the state and the individual ought, each in its of Delphi, probably the priestess. The legends about way, to reflect the image of that order and harmony his appearing at Olympia-where he is said to have by which he believed the universe to be sustained and shown a thigh, like the shoulder of Pelops, of gold or regulated. He did not frame a constitution or a code of ivory, and to have fascinated an eagle as it flew of laws; nor does he appear ever to have assumed over his head-may very well be connected with this any public office. He instituted a society-an order journey, and would indicate that he was looked upon we might now call it—of which he became the lead

er. It was composed of young men carefully select-dicted earthquakes, storms, and other future events, ed from the noblest families, not only of Crotona, but and that a river, as he passed over it with his friends, of other Italiot cities. Their number amounted, or cried out, "Hail, Pythagoras," are wonders which would was confined, to three hundred; and if he expected require much clearer and better evidence to gain them by their co-operation to exercise a sway firmer and credit than the testimony of Apollonius, Porphyry, more lasting than that of a lawgiver or a magis- and Iamblichus, or even of Laertius and Pliny. It trate, first over Crotona, and, in the end, over all the appears upon the face of the history of this philosopher, Italiot cities, his project, though new and bold, ought that he owed much of his celebrity and authority to not to be pronounced visionary or extravagant. This seeking to excite the veneration of the credulous. His celebrated society, then, was at once a philosophical whole manner of life, as far as it is known, confirms school, a religious brotherhood, and a political associa- this opinion. Clothed in a long white robe, with a tion; and all these characters appear to have been in- flowing beard, and, as some relate, with a golden crown separably united in the founder's mind. The ambition on his head, he preserved among the people, and in of Pythagoras was, assuredly, truly lofty and noble. the presence of his disciples, a commanding gravity He aimed at establishing a dominion which he be- and majesty of aspect. He made use of music to prolieved to be that of wisdom and virtue, a rational su- mote the tranquillity of his mind, frequently singing premacy of minds, enlightened by philosophy and pu- for this purpose hymns of Thales, Hesiod, and Horified by religion, and of characters fitted to maintain mer. He had such an entire command over himself, an ascendant over others by habits of self-command. that he was never seen to express in his countenance At first Pythagoras obtained unbounded influence over grief, joy, or anger. He refrained from animal food, all classes at Crotona, and effected a general reforma- and confined himself to a frugal vegetable diet. By tion in the habits of the people; while in other Italian this artificial demeanour, Pythagoras passed himself cities he gained such a footing as enabled him either off upon the vulgar as a being of an order superior to to counteract revolutionary movements, or to restore the common condition of humanity, and persuaded aristocratical government where it had given way to them that he had received his doctrine from heaven. tyranny or democracy.-After the celebrated battle in Pythagoras married Theano of Crotona, or, as some which the people of Crotona defeated the Sybarites, relate, of Crete, by whom he had two sons, Telauges and after which they destroyed the city of the latter, and Mnesarchus, who, after his death, took charge of the senate of Crotona and the Pythagorean associates his school.-Whether Pythagoras left behind him any seem to have been so elated by this success as to writings is a point much disputed. Diogenes Laertius have fancied that it was the triumph of their cause, enumerates many pieces which appeared under his and that they alone were to reap its fruits. When the name, and Iamblichus and Pliny increase the list. But question arose as to the distribution of the spoil and Plutarch, Josephus, Lucian, and others, confess that of the conquered land, they insisted on retaining the there were no genuine works of Pythagoras extant; whole in the name of the state, and refused to con- and from the pains which Pythagoras took to confine cede any share to those who had earned it all by their his doctrine to his own school during his life, it aptoil and blood. The commonalty were, of course, ir- pears highly probable that he never committed his ritated by the attempt. Their fury was directed philosophical system to writing, and that those pieces against the society, chiefly, it is said, by Cylon, a no- to which his name was early affixed were written by ble and wealthy man, who is believed to have been some of his followers, according to the tenets which rejected by Pythagoras when he sought to be admit- they had learned in his school. Among the pieces atted among his followers. A turn-out took place, in tributed to Pythagoras, no one is more famous than the which the populace set fire to Milo's house, where the Golden Verses (Xpvou čπn), which Hierocles has ilPythagoreans were assembled. Many perished, and lustrated with a commentary. It is generally agreed the rest only found safety in exile. It is not clear that they were not written by Pythagoras; and perwhether Pythagoras himself was at Crotona during haps they are to be ascribed to Epicharmus or Emthis commotion; the general belief seems to have pedocles. (Stanley, Hist. Phil., p. 301.-Fabric., been that he died, not long after, at Metapontum. The Bibl. Gr., vol. 1, p. 794. — Brucker, Hist. Phil., vol. rising at Crotona appears to have been followed by 1, p. 1109.) They may be considered as a brief sumsimilar scenes in several other Italian cities, as at mary of his popular method of inCaulonia, Locri, and Tarentum, which would prove struction adopted by Pythagoras was twofold, exoterthe extensive ramifications of the order, and that it ic and esoteric, or public and private. This distinceverywhere disclosed the same political character. tion he had seen introduced with great advantage by Many of the fugitives took refuge in Greece, but con- the Egyptian priests, who found admirably adapted fusion and bloodshed continued to prevail for many to strengthen their authority and increase their emoluyears in the cities which had been the seats of the so- ment. He therefore determined, as far as circumciety. Tranquillity was at length restored by the me- stances would admit, to form his school upon the diation of the Achæans of the mother country, and Egyptian model. For the general benefit of the peosixty of the exiles returned to their homes. But their ple he held public assemblies, in which he delivered presence seems to have given rise to fresh troubles, discourses in praise of virtue and against vice; and perhaps through their opposition to the democratical in these he gave particular instructions, in different institutions which Crotona and other cities adopted classes, to husbands and wives, parents and children, from Achaia and at a later period we find some cel- and others who filled the several relations of society. ebrated Pythagoreans in Greece, who had been driven The auditors who attended these public lectures did out of Italy by their political adversaries, while oth- not properly belong to his school, but continued to folers remained there, and endeavoured, with partial suc-low their usual mode of living. Besides these, he had cess, to revive the ancient influence of the order. a select body of disciples, whom he called his compan(Thirlwall's Greece, vol. 2, p. 145, seqq. - Ritter's ions and friends, who submitted to a peculiar plan of History of Philosophy, vol. 1, p 327.)-Many tales discipline, and were admitted by a long course of inare related of Pythagoras which carry with them struction into all the mysteries of his esoteric doctrine. their own refutation. That, by speaking a word, Before any one could be admitted into this fraternity, he tamed a Daunian bear, which had laid waste the Pythagoras examined his features and external appearcountry; that he prevented an ox from eating beans ance; inquired in what manner he had been accusby whispering in its ear; that he was on the same day tomed to behave towards his parents and friends; represent, and discoursed in public, at Metapontum in marked his manner of conversing, laughing, and keepItaly, and at Tauromenium in Sicily; that he pre- ing silence; and observed what passions he was moe: