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exists a schcam of Olympiodorus (in Phæd., Plat.- those of Aristyllus, Timochares, Meton, Euctemon, Bouilland, Testimonia de Ptolemæo, p. 205), which in- and, above all, of Hipparchus. After the example of forms us that Ptolemy passed 40 years of his life ev all his predecessors, excepting Aristarchus, Ptolemy πтεроiç тov Kavúbov (in the wings of Canobus"), regards the earth as the centre of the universe, and occupied with astronomical observations, and that he makes the stars to revolve around it. This system placed columns there on which he caused to be cut the was that of all succeeding astronomers until the days theorems of which he had been the author. An in- of Copernicus. Ptolemy is the inventor of epicycles, scription has come down to us which illustrates this as they are called, an erroneous but ingenious system, remark of Olympiodorus: Oε Zwrпpi Kλaúdios ПIroλ- and the only one that can explain the irregular revoluεμαῖος ἀρχὰς καὶ ὑποθέσεις μαθηματικάς, κ. τ. λ., tions of the planets, if we deny the sun to be the cenClaudius Ptolemy dedicates to the God, the Preserver, tre of our system. He inserted into his work, with his mathematical principles and theses," &c. Combi- additions, the catalogue of the stars made by Hipparning this dedication with the scholium of Olympiodorus, chus; the list, however, contains only 1022 stars, dithe Abbé Halma states, that he would be inclined to vided into 48 catasterisms. He corrected the theory of believe the deity alluded to in the inscription to be Ca- the lunar revolutions, by determining the equation in nobus, if the inscription did not expressly declare, far- the mean distances between the new and full moon; he ther on, that the monument containing it was placed reduced to a more regular system the parallax of the in the city of Canobus (¿v Kavúb), whence he infers moon, though he has, in fact, traced it too large; he dethat the protecting deity is Serapis, and that Ptolemy termined that of the sun by the size of the shadow made his observations in the side-buildings connected which the earth casts on the moon in eclipses; he taught with the temple of this god. He thinks that this posi- the mode of finding the diameter of the moon, and of tion is not in contradiction with the passage in which calculating lunar and solar eclipses. Ptolemy," says Ptolemy informs us that he made them under the par- Delambre," was not, indeed, a great astronomer, since allel of Alexandrea; for, according to Halma, the city he observed nothing, or, rather, has transmitted to us no of Alexandrea was gradually extended to Canopus, observation on which we can rely with the least confiwhich became a kind of suburbs to it, so that Piole- dence; but he was a learned and laborious man, and a my, though residing at Canopus, may nevertheless be distinguished mathematician. He has collected tosaid to have observed at Alexandrea, or that, observ-gether into one body all the learning that lay scatterng at Canopus, he had no need of reducing his observations to the parallel of Alexandrea, by reason of the trifling difference of latitude. A difficulty here presents itself, of which the Abbé Halma is aware, and which he proposes to remedy by an alteration of the text. If Ptolemy had made his observations in the temple of Serapis at Canopus, Olympiodorus, in place of saying ἐν πτεροῖς τοῦ Κανώβου, " in the wings of (the temple of) Canobus," would have had έv TTEрois Tis Kavibov, "the side-buildings of (the city of) Canobus." Halma therefore proposes to substitute the latter reading for the former, or else to regard Canobus as the same divinity with Serapis, and to suppose that Ptolemy observed in the temple of Canobus at Canopus. This reasoning of Halma's has been attacked by Letronne, and ably refuted. The latter shows, that Canopus, situate at the distance of 120 stadia, or more than two and a half geographical miles, northeast of Alexandrea, never made part of that capital, since there were several places, such as Nicopolis and Taposiris Parva, between the two cities; that, consequently, the Serapeum, in which Ptolemy observed, could not have belonged to Canopus; and, finally, that Ptolemy knew the difference in latitude between Ca-mathematician of the thirteenth century, on the third nopus and Alexandrea, and could not confound them together in one point. It is more probable, as Letronne remarks (Journal des Savans, 1818, p. 202), that Olympiodorus was mistaken as to the place where Ptolemy observed. It is ascertained that there was a temple of Serapis at Canopus as well as at Alexandrea. (Strabo, 801.) Olympiodorus, therefore, must have supposed that the word Serapeum, in the author from whom he copied his remark, belonged exclusively to the first of these cities, when it referred, in fact, in this particular instance, to Alexandrea the capital. The error of Olympiodorus, moreover, is the easier to be explained, from the circumstance of the Serapeum at Canopus having become at one time a celebrated seat of the New-Platonists, and having acquired great distinction on this account among the last apostles of paganism. A commentator on Plato, therefore, would be very ready to suppose that this last asylum of true light, as he believed it, was the place where the great Ptolemy also made his observations and discoveries. -We will now proceed to the works of this distinguished writer. 1. Meyán Lóvrais ("Great Construction"), in thirteen books. This work contains all the astronomical observations of the ancients, such as

ed in the separate works of his predecessors; though, at the same time, it must be acknowledged, that he might have been more sober in his details, and more communicative respecting certain observations which are now lost to us for ever." The same modern writer, after complaining of the little reliance that can be placed on the calculations of Ptolemy, praises the trigonometrical portion of the Τετράβιβλος, and the mathematical theory of eclipses; adding, however, the remark, that here Ptolemy would seem only to have copied from Hipparchus, who had resolved all these problems before him. Indeed, it ought to be borne in mind, as a general remark, that Ptolemy owed a part of his great reputation to the circumstance of the writings of Hipparchus being extremely rare, and having been, soon after Ptolemy's time, completely lost.-An analysis of the Meyaan EúvTasic is given by Halma in the preface of his edition. This work of Ptolemy's was commented upon by Theon of Alexandrea, Pappus, and Ammonius. Of these commentaries we have remaining only that of Theon, and some notes of Pappus. We have, however, the labours of Nilus (or Nicolaus) Cabasilas, a

book. The Μεγάλη Σύνταξις of Ptolemy was translated into Arabic in the 9th century. The Arabians gave it the title of Tahrir al magesthi, the last word being corrupted from the Greek péyioroç (“the greatest"), and this title is intended to express the admiration with which the work had inspired them. From the Arabic words just given was formed the appellation of Almages!, under which name the work is still frequently cited; for the knowledge of this production was brought into Europe by the Arabians, who, during the middle ages, were the sole depositaries of all the sciences. The first Arabic translation was made about 827 A.D., by Al-Hacer-ben-Jusef and the Christian-Sergius. The Caliph Almamoun himself also lent his literary aid to the undertaking. The second version is that of Honain or Ishac-ben-Honaïn, a Christian physician, who had fled to the court of the Caliph Motawakl. It was on these Arabic translations that a Spanish one was made by Isaac-ben-Sid-elHaza. The Emperor Frederic II., a member of that Suabian house under which Germany began to emerge from barbarism, and to enjoy a dawning of national literature before any other of the countries of Europe, directed Egidius Tebuldinus to turn this Spanish

terest in historical chronology. It must be remarked, at the same time, that all the dates of this canon are given in Egyptian years, an arrangement very well adapted to the object in view, but productive of some inconvenience for chronology. Thus, for example, the reigns of the Babylonian, Persian, and Roman monarchs, calculated according to the method of their respective countries, ought to be in advance of, or behind, the years numbered in Ptolemy's canon, by some days, or even months. In the case of the Roman emperors, the difference, in Ptolemy's time, amounted

version into Latin. Another translation was made | dered the diatonic octave more conformable to nar from the Arabic text into Latin by Gerard of Cremo-mony. Some critics, however, are inclined to as na, an astronomer of the twelfth century, who estab-cribe this improvement rather to the New-Pythago lished himself for some time at Toledo, in order to rean Didymus, whom Ptolemy has frequently critilearn the Arabic language. He did not understand it cised, though he obtained from his writings a large perfectly, and was therefore unable to translate cer- portion of his own work. The best edition is that of tain technical terms, which he was consequently com- Wallis, Oxon., 1682, 4to. — 10. 'OπTIKỲ жраyμаτеía peiled to leave in the original language. His classical ("A treatise on Optics"), cited by Heliodorus of Laerudition could not have been very profound, since he rissa, and frequently also by the Arabians, but now was unacquainted with Hipparchus, whom he every- lost. A Latin translation, from two Arabian MSS., where calls Abrachir, as the Arabic translator had exists in an unedited state in the Royal Library at done. It was not until the fifteenth century that a Paris. It contains, however, only four books of the manuscript of the original Greek was discovered, from five which composed the original. In this work Ptol which the astronomer, John Müller, better known by emy gives the most complete idea of astronomic rethe name of Regiomontanus, made his Latin abridg- fraction of any writer down to the time of Kepler.ment. About the same period, George of Trebisond 11. Kavòv Baciλéwv (“ Canon, or Table, of Kings"), made a Latin translation from this original, but a very a part, properly, of the Пpóxeipoi Kavóves. This table unfaithful one. The Alexandreans called the work of contains fifty-five reigns, twenty of which belong to Ptolemy which we have just been considering the kings of Babylon subsequent to Nabonassar, ten to Great Astronomer, Méyaç dσrpovóuoc, in contradis- kings of Persia, thirteen to kings of Egypt of the line of tinction to another collection which they called the the Ptolemies, and the remainder to Roman emperors Little Astronomer, Mixрòç ȧoтpovóuos, and which was after the time of Augustus. This canon was not precomposed of the works of Theodosius of Tripolis; the pared with an historical view, but was intended for asData, Optics, Catoptrics, &c., of Euclid; the works tronomers, to facilitate the calculation of intervals of of Autolycus, Aristarchus of Samos, Hypsicles, &c.-- time that may have elapsed between different astronomThe best and most useful edition of the Almagest is ical observations. As, however, the years of each that of Halma, Paris, 1813-1828, 2 vols. 4to. It monarch's reign are indicated in it with great exactcontains a new French version, and notes by Delam-ness, it becomes, consequently, of great value and inbre.-2. The second work of Ptolemy, as we have arranged it, is the ПIpóxeipot Kavóveç. This is a collection of Manual Tables intended for makers of almanacs, to facilitate their calculations, and which are often only extracts from the Almagest. Halma gave the editio princeps of this work in the first volume of his edition of Theon's Commentary, which he published in 1822.-3. Teтpúbibλoç, î Zúvražiç μaonuariкn ("Tetrahiblus, or Mathematical Syntaxis"), in four books, consisting of astronomical predictions. It is commonly cited under the title of Quadripartitum. Some critics consider this work as unworthy of Ptole-to forty days, and the variation must have been still my, and supposititious. Proclus has made a paraphrase of it. The latest edition is that of Melancthon, Basil, 1553, 8vo.-4. Kapróç (“Fruit"), that is, one hundred astrological propositions collected from the works of Ptolemy. It is usually cited under the title of Centum Dicta. It is published with the Quadri- System of Geography"). This work is in eight partitum.5. Φάσεις ἀπλανῶν ἀστέρων καὶ συναγωγή books, and during nearly fourteen centuries was the Eπionμaσiov ("Appearances of the fixed stars, and a only known manual of systematic geography. It still collection of the things indicated by them"). This is a remains for us one of the principal sources whence species of almanac, giving the rising and setting of we derive our information respecting the geography the stars, the prognostics of the principal changes of of the ancients. Pursuing the plan traced out by temperature, &c. The work is intended for all cli- Marinus of Tyre, Ptolemy undertook to perfect the mates; and, to make it answer this end, and prove labours of that geographer. The map of Marinus and useful to all the Greeks spread over the surface of the Ptolemy was covered, as it were, with a species of globe, Ptolemy gives the appearance of the stars for network; the meridians were traced on it for every five parallels at once, namely, Syene, Lower Egypt, five degrees; the degrees of latitude were marked by Rhodes, the Hellespont, and the Pontus Euxinus. lines running parallel to the equator, and passed The best edition is that of Halma, Paris, 1820, 4to. through the principal cities, such as Syene, AlexanIt was preceded by the edition of Ideler, Berol., 1819. drea, Rhodes, Byzantium, and, consequently, were at -6. Пepì'Avaλńμμaтoç (“Of the Analemma"). The unequal distances from each other. In this network Analemma was a species of sundial, and in this work were marked the points, the height of which had we have an exposition of the whole gnomonic theory been taken according to their true latitude; but, in orof the Greeks.-7. 'Yпóbeσiç twv #havwpevov ("Hy-der to determine their longitude, and the positions, pothesis of the Planets"). The latest edition is that also, of other places, which were only known by the of Halma, Paris, 1820, 4to.-8. "Ahwois tripaveias geometric distance, it was necessary to fix the length ooaipas ("Planisphere"). This work exists only in of a degree on one of the great circles of the globe. an Arabic version, by Maslem, and a Latin translation Marinus and Ptolemy, without themselves measuring made from this. It is a treatise on what is called ste- any great distances, took the most accurate measurereographic projections. The work is probably one of ments existing in their day, and gave 500 stadia as Hipparchus's. The latest edition is that of Comman- the length of a degree. This was one sixth less than dinus, from the press of Paulus Manutius, Venet., the truth, and from this error must necessarily have 1558, 4to.-9. Apμovixá ("Elements of Harmony"), resulted many faults and erroneous deductions. Ptolin three books. Ptolemy has the merit of having re-emy determined the length, from west to east, of all duced the thirteen or fifteen tones of the ancients to seven. It is generally supposed, also, that he determined the true relations of certain intervals, and thus ren

more marked as regarded the Babylonian and Persian reigns. The only exact part is that which relates to the line of the Ptolemies. Halma gave the latest edition of this work in 1820, Paris, 4to.-12. Tewypapikh 'ApĤynσɩ (“ Geographical Narration," or

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the known part of the globe, under the parallel of Rhodes, at 72,000 stadia, following geometrical measurements. These 72,000 stadia make, according to his

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calculation, 180 degrees; and in this way he believed this region. They knew the coast, however, only to he had discovered the extent of one half of the globe. the tenth degree of south latitude, that is, to the promThe fact, however, is, that he was acquainted with ontory of Prasum, which is probably the same with only 125 degrees. His error, consequently, is nearly a the modern Cape Del Gardo, as his city of Rapta would third, namely, one sixth by reason of the mistake he seem to be Melinda. From the promontory of Prasum, commits relative to the measurement of a degree as Ptolemy makes the African coast bend round to the above mentioned, and about a sixth as the result of east for the purpose of joining that of Kattigara. His errors in geometric distances. With regard to lati- island of Menuthias, placed by him near Cape Prasum, tudes, a large number of which were based on astro- but which an ancient periplus brings near to Rapta, is nomical determinations, the errors committed by Ptol- Zanzibar, or one of the other islands off the coast of emy are very unimportant; and the latitude, for exam- Zanguebar. Ptolemy's acquaintance with the eastern ple, which he gives to the southern point of Spain is coast does not extend beyond the modern Madagasso exact, as to lead us to imagine that observations car.-After the decline of the commerce of Carthage had been made in this quarter by some of his prede- and Gades, no new discoveries had been made on the cessors. Strabo had limited to 42 degrees the lati-western coast of Africa, and hence the knowledge of tude of the known part of the earth (situate between Ptolemy in this quarter was not extended beyond that the 12th and 54th degree of north latitude). Ptole- of his predecessors; he introduces, however, more of my, on the other hand, makes 80 degrees, from 16° method into the information obtained from Hanno and south latitude to 63° north; and yet he believed that Scylax.-Ptolemy is the first who indicates the true he knew only about a quarter more than the earlier figure of Spain, Gaul, and the southern part of Algeographers, because these allowed 700 stadia to a bion; but he gives an erroneous description of the degree, which makes nearly 30,000 stadia altogether; northern part of this island, which, according to him, whereas Ptolemy, admitting only 500 stadia, found extends towards the east. Ireland, the lerne of Strathe sum total to be 40,000.-Marinus and Ptolemy bo, and the Juvernia of Ptolemy, ceases to be situated derived some information respecting the easternmost to the north of Albion, as Eratosthenes and Strabo parts of Asia from the Itineraries of a Macedonian thought; it is placed by Ptolemy to the west, but its trader, who had sent his factors on overland journeys northern point is parallel to the northern extremity of from Mesopotamia, along Mount Taurus, through In- Albion. To the north of this latter island he places dia, and even to the distant capital of the Seres. the Orcades, and a little farther to the north (about These journeys must have been prosecuted very soon 63° N. L.), the isle of Thule, the northernmost exafter the time of Alexander the Great, under the first tremity of the geographical system of Ptolemy. This two monarchs of the dynasty of the Seleucide since Thule is probably Mainland, situate about 60° N, it is not probable that, after the defection of the Bac- the same that was seen by the Roman fleet under trians and Parthians, a route remained open through Agricola, covered with ice and eternal snow. (Tacit., these countries to the traffic of the Greeks. Ptolemy Vit. Agr., c. 10.)—The description which Ptolemy thus could hardly have gained much information re- gives of the shores of Germany as far as the Elbe, as specting these lands from the narratives of overland well as of Scandinavia, extends no farther than the travellers. The communication by sea, however, be- accounts already given by Pliny and Tacitus. He tween Egypt and India, became frequent in the time describes the Cimbric Chersonese, and the German of the Ptolemies. Strabo speaks of fleets that sailed coast of the Baltic as far as the Dwina, with considfor India, and, in the time of Pliny, the coast of the erable accuracy, but he is not aware that this sea is a country this side of the Ganges was perfectly well mediterranean one, for his Gulf of Veneda is only a known. The navigators of the West, however, did part of this sea, from Memel to Dantzic. The question not go beyond this stream. It was supposed that has been asked, By what chance Ptolemy was enabled from this point the shore of Asia bent directly to the to obtain more accurate notions respecting those counnorth, and joined the eastern extremity of Taurus. tries than those which Pliny and Tacitus possessed, At a later period navigators went beyond the mouths and that, too, although the principal depôt of amber, of the Ganges, and, to their great astonishment, found the well-known production of the shores of the Baltic, that the land redescended towards the south, and was in the capital of Italy? The answer is, that if formed a large gulf (Bay of Bengal-Sinus Gangeti- the amber was chiefly carried to Rome, the traffic was cus). They pushed their adventurous career still far- conducted by merchants from Alexandrea, and it was ther taking their departure from the southern part through them that Ptolemy obtained the materials for of the western peninsula of India, they crossed the this portion of his work-In the last book of his geoggulf in a straight line, and reached the coast of Siam raphy, Ptolemy teaches the mode of preparing charts and the peninsula of Malacca; this last they called or maps. We here find the first principles of projecthe Golden Chersonese, a proof of the profitable trade tion; but the book itself has reached us in a very corwhich was there carried on by them. Having doubled rupt state through the fault of the copyists. The more the extremity of this second peninsula, they entered modern maps long preserved traces of those of Ptoleon a new gulf (that of Siam-Magnus Sinus). From my and his successors. The Caspian Sea, for examthe eastern coast of the Golden Chersonese they ple, retained the form traced for it by Ptolemy as late passed in a southern direction, and reached a large as the eighteenth century; for a part of the coasts of continent, on the shore of which was situate the city the Black Sea, and of Africa beyond Egypt, our maps of Kattigara. This country was probably the Isle of still conform to the general outline of Ptolemy, and Borneo. The discoverer of this country was called the substitution of modern for ancient names is the Alexander. (Ptol., Geogr., 2, 14.) Ptolemy, who, only difference. Such, at least, is the assertion of as well as this adventurer, believed that the coast was Mannert (Geogr., vol. 1, p. 191). No good coma prolongation of that which formed the Gulf of Siam plete edition of Ptolemy's Geography has ever ap (the coast of Cambodia), founded thereon his hypoth-peared. One, however, has recently been commenced esis, that the Indian was a mediterranean sea. He in Germany, by Wilberg, of which the first fasciculus, supposed that, after Kattigara, the land extended from east to west as far as the southeast coast of Africa, with which it united, forming one common continent -Marinus and Ptolemy were well acquainted with the eastern coast of Africa, and mention is no longer made, in their pages, of the fabulous monsters which the credulity of a previous age had established as the dwellers of

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containing the first book, has thus far appeared. Essendiæ, 1838, 4to. In 1475, Lichtenstein (Levilapis) printed at Cologne, in folio, the Latin translation of this work, made by Angelo, a Florentine scholar of the fifteenth century, or, rather, commenced by Chry solaras and finished by Angelo. It was revised, for the purposes of this publication, by Vadius and Picar.

of Words"). It is properly the fragment merely of a larger work. Ptolemy was the author also of a Homeric Prosody, a treatise on metres, and a dissertation on Aristarchus's revision of Homer. The fragment on "the Difference of Words" is given by Fabricius, Bibl. Gr., vol. 4, p. 515, of the old edition; vol. 6, p. 117, of the new.-XX. Surnamed Chernus, flourished under the emperors Trajan and Hadrian. Photius has preserved for us some fragments of his work, Περὶ τῆς εἰς πολυμαθίαν καινῆς ἱστοpías ("New History of varied Erudition"), in seven books. To give some idea of this compilation, we will mention some of the subjects of which it treats: the death of Protesilaus; that of Sophocles; that of Hercules; the history of Croesus; the death of Achilles; that of Laius; the history of Tiresias; the death of Adonis; the origin of several epithets given to the heroes of the Iliad, and to other personages of the fabulous times. Ptolemy also wrote a drama entitled the Sphinx. He dared even to enter the lists against Homer with a poem in twenty-four books or cantos, entitled 'Av0óunpos ("The Anti-Homer"). Gale has placed the fragments of Ptolemy Chennus in his Historia Poëticæ Scriptores, p. 303, seqq., and to the eighth chapter is prefixed a dissertation on this writer. The fragments are also given in the edition of Conon and Parthenius by Teucher. (Schöll, Hist. Lit. Gr., vol. 5, p. 44.)

PTOLEMAIS, I. a seaport town of Phoenicia. (Vid. Ace.)-II. A city on the coast of Cyrenaïca in Africa, and the port of Barce. It suffered so severely from want of water, that the inhabitants were obliged to relinquish their dwellings, and disperse themselves about the country in different directions. The attempts of Justinian to obviate this evil proved unavailing. The ruins are called at the present day Ptolemata. A description of the remains of this ancient city is given by Captain Beechey and oth

dus. The translation of Angelo was reprinted, with corrections made from a manuscript of the Greek text, by Calderino, Roma, 1478, fol. Twenty-seven maps accompany this edition, which appears to have been printed by Arnold Pannartz. This is the second work, with a date, that is accompanied with engravings on copper. In 1482, Donis, a German monk, and a good astronomer for his time, gave a new edition to the world, printed by Holl, at Ulm, in folio. It has fewer mistakes in the figures than those which preceded it, but just as many in the names. Several editions followed, but all swarming with errors. The celebrated Pico de Mirandola sent to Essler, at Strasbourg, a Greek manuscript of Ptolemy's work, by the aid of which that scholar gave a new edition, not in the translation of Angelo, but in another, very literal and somewhat barbarous, by Philesius. Essler made many changes in this version, and, to justify himself, generally added the Greek term to the Latin. He placed in it 46 maps cut on wood. Brunet calls this edition one of little value; in this he is mistaken. The edition we have just spoken of was reprinted at Strasbourg in 1520, and also in 1522. A new translation, made by the celebrated Pirckheymer, appeared in 1525, from the Strasbourg press, fol. It contains fifty maps cut on wood. The first Greek edition was that of Erasmus, printed from a manuscript which Theobald Fettich, a physician, had sent him, and which issued from the press of Froben, at Bâle, 1533, in 4to. The manuscript was a very good one, but, through the fault of the printer, a great number of errors were allowed to creep in among the figures. Not having a sufficient quantity of the peculiar type or mark which indicated, he employed in its place the letter 5, which signifies. He made use, also, of the same letter on many occasions, to designate. The fraction is marked by yo, but the manuscript often places the o above the y, and in a smaller character. The compositor, not attending to this, contented himself with put-ers. (Modern Traveller, pt. 50, p. 114, segg.)-III. ting in its place y alone, which is equivalent to. The confusion resulting from such a course is apparent, and the only mode to remedy the evil is to have recourse to the Latin editions which appeared previous to 1533. The Bâle edition was reprinted by Wechel, at Paris, 1546, 4to.-Michael Servetus (Villanovanus) retouched the translation of Pirckheymer, after a manuscript, and published it, with fifty maps cut on wood, at Lyons, in 1530, and again, with corrections and additions, in the same city, in 1541. These two editions of Ptolemy play a conspicuous part in the history of religious fanaticism; Calvin derived from them one of his grounds of accusation against Servetus. He was charged with having added to the description that accompanies the map of Palestine, a passage which contradicts what Moses says respecting the fertility of that country. The interpolated passage does actually exist, but it was added by Phrisius, who took charge of the edition of 1522.-The last impression of the Greek text was in 1618 and 1619, in 2 vols. 4to, from the Amsterdam press, by Bertius. Many faults of the previous editions are corrected in this one, by the aid of a Heidelberg manuscript, but the same errors in the figures still remain, and, to augment the confusion, the editor has placed beside them those of the Latin editions, which often differ widely. The only recent edition of the mathematical part of Ptolemy's Geography is that of Halma, containing only the first book and the latter part of the seventh, with a French version and notes, Paris, 1828, 4to. (Schöll, Hist. Lit. Gr., vol. 5, p. 240, seqq.—Id. ibid., vol. 5, p. 271.-Id. ibid., vol. 6, p. 312, &c.-Compare Delambre, in Biogr. Univ., vol. 36, p. 263.)XIX. A native of Ascalon, who followed the profession of a grammarian at Rome before the time of Herodian, by whom he is cited. He wrote a work on PUBLICOLA, a surname given to Publius Valerius, Synonymes, Hepi diapopûç héžewv (“ On the difference | according to Dionysius and Plutarch, on account of his

A city of Egypt, in the northern part of Thebaïs, northeast of Abydus. It rose in importance as the last-mentioned city declined, and eventually rivalled Memphis in size. Ptolemaïs would seem to have been founded by one of the Ptolemies, or, at all events, re-established by him on the site of some more ancient city, as the Greek name, Пroλeμats ʼn 'Epueiov (Ptol emaïs, the city of Hermes), would seem to indicate. The city, therefore, was originally consecrated to the Egyptian Hermes. It appears to have received a severe blow to its prosperity, by reason of its resistance to the Emperor Probus. The modern village of Men sich is in the immediate neighbourhood of Ptolemais. (Mannert, Geogr., vol. 10, pt. 1, p. 381, segg.)—IV. Originally a small promontory, on the western coast of the Sinus Arabicus. It was near the inland sea Monoleus. A fortified port was established here by Eumedes, a commander of Ptolemy Philadelphus; and the spot was selected on account of the large forest in the vicinity, which furnished valuable naval timber for the fleets of the Ptolemies. In this forest, also, wild elephants abounded; and, as Ptolemy wanted these aniinals for his armies, a regular hunting establishment was formed here, and the place received from this circumstance its second name of Onpov, and also that of 'Emilńpas (ènì výpas). In a commercial point of view it was of no great importance, as Arrian merely mentions among its exports tortoise-shell and ivory; but to the ancient astronomers and geographers it was directly the reverse, since they regarded it as the fittest place for measuring a degree, and thus ascertaining the circumference of the globe. The harbour of Mirza Mombanik, about 15 geographical miles north of Massua, appears to indicate the ancient Ptolemaïs. (Mannert, Geogr., vol. 10, pt. 44, seqq.)

protecting the rights of the people (populum and colo, | productions, which seem to have been peculiar to RoPoplicola, Publicola). Niebuhr dissents from this ety-man genius. The sentiments of Publius Syrus now ap mology in the following remarks: "We cannot agree pear trite. They have become familiar to mankind, and with the Greek Dionysius and Plutarch in translating Publicola as a compound term by dŋuoкndns, the protector of the people; but we must recognise therein the old Latin form of the adjective with a superfluous termination, which is sometimes mistaken for a diminutive, sometimes for a compound. It is equivalent to Publicus, in the sense of dпuorikós. Thus Scævola is not the diminutive, but synonymous with Scavus, and Equicolus is nothing but Equus or Equicus; Volsculus nothing but Volscus." (Roman History, vol. 1, p. 360, Walter's trans.)

PUBLILIA LEX, I. a law proposed by Publilius the Dictator, A.U.C. 414, ordaining that, before the people gave their votes, the senate should authorize whatever they might determine. (Livy, 8, 12.)-II. A law ordaining that the plebeian magistrates should be created at the comitia tributa. (Liv., 2, 56)

have been re-echoed by poets and moralists from age
to age. All of them are most felicitously expressed,
and few of them seem erroneous, while, at the same
time, they are perfectly free from the selfish or worldly-
minded wisdom of Rochefoucauld or Lord Burleigh.
(Dunlop's Roman Literature, vol. 1, p. 558, seqq.)
The sentences of Publius Syrus are appended to many
of the editions of Phædrus. The most useful edition of
these sentences is perhaps that of Gruter, Lugd. Bat.,
1727, 8vo. The latest and most accurate edition,
however, is that of Orellius, appended to his edition of
Phædrus, Turici, 1832, 8vo. It contains, also, thirty
sentences never before published. (Bähr, Gesch. Lit.
Röm., vol. 1, p. 776.)

PULCHERIA, I. sister of Theodosius the Great, and celebrated for her piety and virtues.-II. A Roman empress, daughter of Arcadius, and sister of Theodosius the younger. She was created Augusta A.D. 414, and shared the imperial power with her brother. After the death of the latter (A.D. 450), she gave her hand to Marcianus. (Vid. Marcianus I) Pulcheria died A.D. 454, and was interred at Ravenna, where her tomb is still to be seen.

PULCHRUM PROMONTORIUM, the same with Hermaum Promontorium. (Vid. Hermæum.)

PUNICUM BELLUM, the name given to the wars between Rome and Carthage. The Punic wars were three in number. The first took its rise from the affair of the Mamertini, an account of which will be found under the article Messana, page 836, col. 1. This was ended by the naval battle fought off the Ægates Insule; and it was also memorable for the naval victory of Duilius, the first ever gained by the Romans. (Vid. Carthago, ( 4.-Duilius.-Ægates.) The Second Punic War commenced with the affair of Saguntum, and was terminated by the battle of Zama. During its continuance Hannibal carried on his celebrated campaigns against the Romans in Italy. (Vid. Carthago, 4.-Hannibal.-Metaurus.-Zama.) The Third Punic War was the siege and destruction of Carthage itself. (Vid. Carthago, § 4.)

PUBLIUS SYRUS, a celebrated composer and actor of mimes. He was a native of Syria, and was brought from Asia to Italy in early youth in the same vessel with his countryman and kinsman Manlius Antiochus, the professor of astrology, and Staberius Eros, the grammarian, who all, by some desert in learning, rose above their original fortune. He received a good education and liberty from his master, in reward for his witticisins and his facetious disposition. He first represented his mimes in the provincial towns of Italy, whence, his fame having spread to Rome, he was summoned to the capital, to assist in those public spectacles which Cæsar offered his countrymen in exchange for their freedom. (Macrob., Sat., 2, 7.) On one occasion he challenged all persons of his own profession to contend with him on the stage; and in this competition he successfully overcame every one of his rivals. By his success in the representation of these popular entertainments, he amassed considerable wealth, and lived with such luxury that he never gave a great supper without having sow's udder at table, a dish which was prohibited by the censors as being too great a luxury even for the table of patricians. (Plin., 8, 51.) Nothing farther is known of his history, except that he was still continuing to perform his mimes with ap- PUPIENUS, MARCUS CLODIUS MAXIMUS, a man of plause at the period of the death of Laberius, which obscure family, who raised himself by his merit to the happened ten months after the assassination of Cæsar. highest offices in the Roman armies, and gradually be(Chron. Euseb., ad Olymp., 184.) We have not the came a prætor, consul, prefect of Rome, and a governnames of any of the mimes of Publius, nor do we pre- or of the provinces. His father was a blacksmith. cisely know their nature or subject; all that is pre- After the death of the Gordians, Pupienus was elected served from them being a number of detached senti- with Balbinus to the imperial throne, and, to rid the ments or maxims, to the amount of 800 or 900, seldom world of the usurpation and tyranny of the Maximini, exceeding a single line, but containing reflections of he immediately marched against these tyrants; but he unrivalled force, truth, and beauty, on all the various was soon informed that they had been sacrificed to the relations, situations, and feelings of human life. Both fury and resentment of their own soldiers. He preparthe writers and actors of mimes were probably careful ed, after this, to make war against the Persians, who to have their memory stored with commonplaces and insulted the majesty of Rome, but was massacred, A.D. precepts of morality, in order to introduce them appro- 236, by the prætorian guards. Balbinus shared his priately in their extemporaneous performances. The fate. Pupienus is sometimes called Maximus. In maxims of Publius were interspersed through his his private character he appeared always grave and sedramas; but, being the only portion of these produc- rious. He was the constant friend of justice, moderations now remaining, they have just the appearance of tion, and clemency, and no greater encomium can be thoughts or sentiments, like those of Rochefoucauld. passed upon his virtues than to say that he was inHis mimes must either have been very numerous, or vested with the purple without soliciting it, and that very thickly loaded with these moral aphorisms. It is the Roman senate said they had selected him from also surprising that they seem raised far above the ordi- thousands, because they knew no person more worthy nary tone even of regular comedy, and appear for the or better qualified to support the dignity of an emgreater part to be almost stoical maxims. Seneca has re-peror. (Capitol, Vit. Maxim.-Id., Vit. Gord.) marked, that many of his eloquent verses are fitter for the buskin than the slipper. (Ep., 8.) How such exalted precepts should have been grafted on the lowest farce, and how passages, which would hardly be appropriate in the most serious sentimental comedy, were adapted to the actions or manners of gross and drunken buffoons, is a difficulty which could only be solved had we fortunately received entire a larger portion of these |

PUPIUS, a tragic poet at Rome, contemporary with Cæsar. He was famed for his power in exciting emotion. Hence the scholiast on Horace remarks (Epist., 1, 1, 67), “Pupius, Tragædiographus, ita affectus spectantium movit, ut eos flere compelleret. Inde istum versum fecit:

"Flebunt amici et bene noti mortem meam;
Nam populus in me vivo lacrymatu est satis.'"

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