sacramenta. Bonaventura brought (Brevil. vi. Cent. iii. sect. 47. c. 3.) the seven sacraments into connection with the seven diseases of man. Original sin is counteracted by baptism, mortal sin by penance, venial sin by extreme unction; ignorance is cured by ordination, malice by the Lord's Supper, infirmity by confirmation, evil concupiscence by matrimony.)a A corresponding connection may be pointed out between the sacraments and the seven cardinal virtues: baptism leads to faith, confirmation to hope, the Lord's Supper to love, penance to righteousness, extreme unction to perseverance, ordination to prudence, matrimony to moderation, (for further particulars see ibidem).— Comp. also Berthold's Sermons edited by Kling, p. 439, ss. The seven sacred things" are, in his opinion, a remedy prepared by Jesus, divided into seven parts, etc.

7 John Damascenus mentioned (de fide orthod. iv. 13) the two mysteries of baptism and the Lord's Supper, the former in reference to the birth of man, the latter in reference to the support of his new life; the two mysteries were again subdivided by him, viz. baptism into water and Spirit (Chrisma), and the Lord's Supper into bread and wine. Theodore Studita taught (lib. ii. ep. 165, Opp. p. 517) only six sacraments (after the example of Pseudo-Dionysius, see vol. i. p. 361), viz. 1. Baptism; 2. The Lord's Supper (oúvažis, xorvauía); 3. The consecration of the holy oil (reλer Múpou); 4. The ordination of priests (isparinai τελειώσεις); 5. The monastic orders (μοναχικὴ τελείωσις); and 6. The rites performed on the dead (περὶ τῶν ἱερῶς κεκοιμη Mévwv.) See Schröckh Kirchengeschichte, xxii. p. 127, 128.

8 Mansi Conc. T. xxxi. Col. 1054 ss. The decisions of this Synod had also binding force for the united Armenians.

9 Wycliffe made mention of the ecclesiastical doctrine, Lib. iv. c. 1., but in the subsequent chapters critically examined cach sacrament separately. Comp. § 190, note 10. The confession of faith adopted by the Waldenses is given by Léger, histoire générale des églises évangéliques de Piémont, 1699, p. 95, quoted by Schröckh, Kirchengesch. xxix. p. 548. That of the Hussites will be found in Lenfant, histoire de la guerre des Hussites, vol. ii. p. 132, ss. Schröckh, Kirchengesch. xxxiv. p.

a" Thus the poor laity have no sacrament to counteract ignorance, nor have the poor clergy a sacrament to counteract lusts." Schleiermacher, Kirchengesch. p. 514.

718, ss. Huss himself adopted the doctrine of seven sacraments, though with certain modifications. See Münscher, edit. by Von Cölln, p. 201.

§ 190.

THE SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED

Many discussions took place among the scholastics respecting the antiquity of the sacraments, their necessity, design, and significance, as well as respecting their specific virtue and effects.2 In the spirit of the better class of the mystics, Hugo of St Victor traced the design of the sacraments to the inward religious wants of man. But it was especially Thomas Aquinas who endeavoured, with a great show of learning, both to define the idea of sacrament still more precisely, and to enlighten himself, as well as others, concerning its effects.4 In consequence of the death of Jesus, the sacraments instituted in the New Testament have obtained what is called virtus instrumentalis, or effectiva, which those of the Old Testament did not possess.5 Therefore, by partaking of the sacraments, man acquires a certain character, which, in the case of some sacraments, such as baptism, confirmation, and the ordination of priests, is character indelebilis, and, consequently renders impossible the repetition of such sacraments.6 The effects produced by the sacraments arise not only ex opere operantis, but also ex opere operato. Accordingly, they neither depend upon the external or internal dignity of him who administers the sacrament, nor upon his faith and moral character, but upon his intention to administer the sacrament as such. This intention must, at least, be habitual; but it is not absolutely necessary that it should be actual. In op

position to the doctrine of Thomas, which received the sanction of the Catholic Church, Duns Scotus denied that the effective power of grace was contained in the sacraments themselves. The forerunners of the Reformation, e. g., Wessel and Wycliffe, combated still more decidedly the doctrine, that the effects of the sacrament are produced ex opere operato, while they manifested the highest reverence for the sacraments themselves as Divine institutions.10 Thus they preserved the right medium between that superstitious, and mere external mode of perception, by which the sacrament was changed, as it were, into a charm, and the fanatical, internal mode of perception adopted by the pantheistic sects, who proudly rejected all visible pledges and seals of supernatural blessings.11

1 On the question, in what sense the Old Testament may be said to have had its sacraments? see Peter Lombard, Sent. Lib. iv. Dist. 1, E....... Veteris Testamenti sacramenta promittebant tantum et significabant, hæc autem (novi testamenti) dant salutem (comp. the opinions of Augustine, ibidem). Inasmuch as the sacraments had become necessary, in consequence of sin, and God had instituted the sacrament of matrimony in Paradise itself, it was considered to be the earliest, because it belonged to the state of innocence. See Cramer, vii. p. 103, Comp. Thomas Aquinas, (in notes 4 and 5).

2"The common tradition of the Church taught only the notion of a magic effect of the sacraments, and thus assigned too great an influence to the mere external and unspiritual form. On the contrary, the scholastics clearly perceived that justification and sanctification are something essentially free, internal, and spiritual, and depend upon faith. These two notions being contradictory to each other, it became necessary to reconcile them, which was for the most part done by ingenious reasonings." Liebner, Hugo von St Victor, p. 430.

3 According to Hugo of St Victor, the design of the sacraments is threefold: 1. Propter humiliationem (we must submit

to the visible, in order to attain by it, to the invisible); 2. Propter eruditionem (the visible leads to the invisible. Though a sick person may not see the medicine he is to take, he sees the bottle, which leads him to believe in the healing power which it contains, and inspires him with confidence and hope); 3. Propter exercitationem (the inner and spiritual life of man is strenthened thereby.) The three persons of the Trinity take an active part in the administration of the sacraments. The Father (as the Creator) creates the elements; the Son (as the Redeemer, Godman) institutes them; and the Holy Ghost sanctifies them (through grace.) Man, as the instrument of God, distributes them. God is the physician, man is the diseased person, the priest is the servant or the messenger of God, the grace of God (not the sacrament) is the medicine, and the sacrament is the vessel in which it is contained. God could have saved man without sacraments, if he had chosen; but since he has been pleased to institute them, it is the duty of man to submit to his arrangement; nevertheless, God can still save without sacraments. If either time or place prevent man from receiving the sacraments, the res (virtus)sacramenti is sufficient; for the thing itself is of more importance than the sign, faith is more important than water, etc., de Sacram. Lib. i. P. ix., c. 3-5. Liebner, p. 430, ss.

4 Thomas Aquinas Summ. P. iii., Qu. 60-65. (Extracts from it are given by Münscher, edit. by Von Cölln, p. 192, ss.)

5 Qu. 62., Art. 1.: Necesse est dicere sacramenta novæ legis per aliquem modum gratiam causare. .... Et dicendum est quod duplex est causa agens, principalis et instrumentalis. Principalis quidem operatur per virtutem suæ formæ, cui assimilatur effectus, sicut ignis suo calore calefacit. Et hoc modo nihil potest causare gratiam nisi Deus, quia gratia nihil est aliud, quam quædam participata similitudo divinæ naturæ. Causa vero instrumentalis non agit per vertutem suæ formæ, sed solum per motum, quo movetur a principali agente. Unde effectus non assimilatur instrumento, sed principali agenti. Et hoc modo sacramenta novæ legis gratiam causant.-Art. 5: Unde manifestum est, quod sacramenta ecclesiæ specialiter habent virtutem ex passione Christi, cujus virtus quodammodo nobis copulatur per susceptionem sacramentorum.-Art. 6: Per fidem passionis Christi justificabantur antiqui patres, sicut et nos. Sacramenta autem ve

teris legis erant quædam illius fidei protestationes, inquantum significabant passionem Christi et effectus ejus. Sic ergo patet quod sacramenta veteris legis non habebant in se aliquam virtutem qua operarentur ad conferendam gratiam justificantem; sed solum significabant fidem per quam justificabantur.a

6 Innocent III. in Decret. Greg. IX. L. iii. T. 42. c. 3: Et is qui ficte ad baptismum accedit, characterem suscipit christianitatis impressum. Thomas P. iii. Qu. 63. Art. 2: Sacramenta novæ legis characterem imprimunt.-The Concilium Florentinum held under Pope Eugen IV. laid down the following canon (in Mansi T. xxxi. Col. 1054, ss.): Inter hæc Sacramenta tria sunt, Baptismus, Confirmatio et Ordo, quæ characterem, i. e. spirituale quoddam signum a cæteris distinctivum imprimunt in anima indelebile. Unde in eadem persona non reiterantur. Reliqua vero quatuor characterem non imprimunt et reiterationem admittunt. (Nevertheless a difference of opinion respecting the repetition of extreme unction, took place on the occasion of the death of Pope Pius II.) Concerning the discussion which arose between the dying Pope and Laurentius Roverella, bishop of Ferrara, see Platina in Vita Pii II. Compare below, § 199, note 3.

7 The distinction between these two terms was best defined by Gabriel Biel, in Sent. Lib. iv., Dist. 1. Qu. 3. (Münscher, edit. by Von Cölln, p. 199): Sacramentum dicitur conferre gratiam ex opere operato, ita quod ex eo ipso quod opus illud, puta sacramentum, exhibetur, nisi impediat obex peccati mortalis, gratia confertur utentibus, sic quod præter exhibitionem signi foris exhibiti non requiritur bonus motus interior in suscipiente. Ex opere operante vero dicuntur Sacramenta conferre gratiam per modum meriti, quod scilicet sacramentum foris exhibitum non sufficit ad gratiæ collationem, sed ultra hoc requiritur bonus motus seu devotio interior in suscipiente, secundum cujus intentio

a" The notion that the sacraments of the Old Testament had only prevented the Divine grace, but not communicated it, was rejected by John Bonaventura and Scotus, after the opposite doctrine had previously been propounded by the Venerable Bede; it was, however, confirmed by Pope Eugen IV. at the Council of Florence." Münscher, ed. by Von Cölln, p. 187, (the proofs are given ibid. p. 198-99.) The doctrine was then established, that the sacraments of the Old Testament had produced effects ex opere operantis, those of the New Testament ex opere operato. Comp. Engelhardt, Dogmengeschichte, p. 197-98, note.

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