§ 238. INFLUENCE OF PHILOSOPHY. DEISM. APOLOGETICS. Leland, John, a View of the principal deistical writers that have appeared in England in the last and present century. 1754. ii. voll. Thorschmid, Freidenkerbibliothek. Halle 1765-67. Herder, Adrastea (Werke zur Philosophie und Geschichte. ix.) *Lechler Gotth. Vict., Geschichte des englischen Deismus. Stuttg. 1841. And lastly, the religious parties, though divided on so many points, could make common cause in the contest for Christianity in general against a tendency which either renounced the positive authority of revelation, or threatened its essential relations. The philosophical schools of the seventeenth century not only developed their systems more independently of religion, but sometimes called forth doubts respecting its truths. Nevertheless, it was not so much this philosophy of the schools, which maintained the greatest possible distance from theology,1 as a popular form of philosophy the so-called philosophy of common sense, which opposed the existing systems of religion. Its advocates are generally known under the name of Freethinkers, Deists, or Naturalists. Aiming at practical results, and accustomed to bold and hasty judgments, they declared war against the belief in revelation adopted by all the confession of that age,2 and thus compelled the apologists of the Christian Church to re-enter the lists.3 1 It was Cartesianism alone which exerted a more direct influence upon the theology of the present period, and, in the first instance, only upon that of the Reformed Church (see § 225. note 1.); Malebranche, however, introduced this philosophy also into the theology of the Romish Church. Spinoza (born A. D. 1632, and died 1617), a man of elevated character, was not connected with any of the existing denominations, on account of which, the theologians of his age took no notice of him. It was not till after his death that the speculative writers on Christian theology turned their attention to his system. Locke (he was born A. D. 1632, and died 1704) promoted the interests of Empiricism, which was first established by Francis Bacon of Verulam (he died A. D. 1626) and in its turn contributed to the development of Deism (though contrary to the intentions of its author.) Leibnitz (born 1646, and died 1716) interested himself much in theology, as may be seen from his work on Theodicy (comp. § 261. note 7.), and the part he took in the attempts at union (see § 237. note 2.) But it was not till Wolf remodelled his philosophy (in the following period), that it attracted the attention of theologians, and was introduced into their writings. 2 Concerning the vague distinction on which these appellations are founded, see Herder, 1. c. p. 174. 75. Lechler, p. 452 ss. The so-called Deists widely differed among themselves in disposition, talents, and sentiments, and an equal difference may be observed in the relation in which their systems stand, both to each other and to Christianity. The Deism of England can only be explained in connection with the history of the English Reformation, and the conflicts to which it gave rise. Among its promoters, in addition to the sect of the Seekers and Rationalists (Lechler, p. 61. note.) we may mention the following writers: Herbert of Cherbury (he died 1648), Thomas Hobbes (he died 1679 in old age), Charles Blount (he died 1693), John Toland (he died 1722), Anthony Collins (he died 1729), Anthony Ashley Cooper (Earl of Shaftesbury, he died 1713), Thomas Woolston (he died 1733), Matthew Tindal, (he died 1733), Thomas Chubb (an illiterate person, a glover and chandler, died 1747), and several others who lived in the following period. In France, Jean Bodin (died 1596), Michael de Montaigne (he died 1592), and Pierre Charron (he died 1603), manifested a sceptical tendency; in later times, Pierre Bayle died 1706) prepared the way for French Naturalism (concerning him see a The term "Deism," in particular, is not to be confounded with the same term as used by philosophers in distinction from Theism. Feuerbach, L., Pierre Bayle, Anspach 1838.) In Germany, Matthias Knutsen (who lived about the year 1674) founded the sect of the "Gewissener" (conscientiarii.) 3 Grotius composed his apologetical work (§ 235. note 4.) without reference to Deism. Robert Boyle (1638) founded a college for the special purpose of opposing the English Deists. Among the English apologists, the most distinguished were Richard Baxter (he died 1691), William Sherlock (he died 1707), and others. On their polemical writings, in refutation of the Deists, see Lechler, 1. c. Among the French apologists we may mention Pascal (see § 228. note 6.), and Abbadie, a member of the Reformed Church (he died 1727.) He wrote: Traité de la vérité de la religion chrétienne. Roterd. 1684. § 239. DIVISION OF THE MATERIAL. To facilitate the survey of the history of doctrines during the present period, it will be necessary to begin, in the special part of it, with those doctrines which best represent the doctrinal differences between the two greater ecclesiastical bodies, i. e., the opposition between Roman Catholics and Protestants,1 and then to pass over to those in which these sections of the church were more or less agreed (in contrast with the minor sects), and where the antithesis beween Romanism and Protestantism either becomes of minor importance, or entirely disappears. To the first class belongs the doctrines concerning the sources of religious knowledge (which may be said to constitute the formal principle of Romanism and Protestantism), the doctrines of the state of man, of sin, of justification, and of redemption (which may be called the material principle), and lastly, those doctrines which most clearly display the consequences of either principle, viz., the doctrines of the church,2 of the sacra ments (with the exception of baptism, and of purgatory (which forms a part of eschatology. To the second class belong theology proper, and christology, the doctrine of baptism and eschatology (with the exception of purgatory.) 1 It ought not to be forgotten, that the difference between. Lutherans and Calvinists is not so great as that between Protestants and Roman Catholics, and is of importance only in reference to the doctrines of the Lord's Supper, and of predestination. We shall, at the same time, consider the different views of the minor religious parties, such as Socinians, Quakers, and others. 2 The doctrine concerning the church belongs, in a certain aspect, to the controverted doctrines, especially in the Roman Catholic point of view; see the treatise of Baur in answer to Möhler's Symbolick, p. 60 ss. But the views which Protestants entertained concerning the church, followed rather from their other notions. 216 B. SPECIAL HISTORY OF DOCTRINES DURING THE FOURTH PERIOD. FIRST CLASS. THE CHARACTERISTIC DOCTRINES OF ROMANISM AND PROTESTANTISM. (INCLUSIVE OF THE OPPOSITION BETWEEN LUTHERANS AND CALVINISTS, AND WITH REFERENCE TO MINOR RELIGIOUS PARTIES AND SECTS.) FIRST SECTION. THE DOCTRINES CONCERNING THE SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE. FORMAL PRINCIPLE. § 240. ROMANISM AND PROTESTANTISM. From the commencement of the Reformation it became evident, on several occasions, that its adherents proceeded upon another principle of knowledge than Roman |