and the end of the world take place." Lücke, l. c., p. 514, 515. On the commotions which happened at that time in the Church, comp. Trithemii chronic. Hirsaug. ad ann. 960. Glaber Radul phus, hist. sui temp. Lib. iv. c. 6. (in Duchesne, scriptt. Francorum, T. iv. p. 22, ss.) Schmid, Geschichte des Mysticismus im Mittellalter, p. 89. Gieseler, ii. 1. p. 229. The crusades were also connected with millennarian expectations, see Corrodi, ii. p. 522 ss. Schmid 1. c.—When, in the course of the fourteenth century, the plague, famine, and other divine punishments, reminded men of the uncertainty of all that is earthly, and signs were seen in the heavens, it was especially the Flagellantes who announced that the end of the world was nigh at hand; the same was done by Martin Loquis, a native of Moravia, and priest of the Taborites, see Schröckh, xxxiv. p. 687.

4 Comp. John Damascenus de fide orthod. iv. 26. Elucidarium c. 68. It was the prevailing opinion during the middle ages, that Antichrist would either be brought forth by a virgin, or be the offspring of a bishop and a nun. About the year 950, Adso, a monk in a monastery of western Franconia, wrote a treatise on Antichrist, in which he assigned a later time to his coming, and also to the end of the world (see Schröckh Kirchengesch. xxi. p. 243.) He did not distinctly state whom he meant to be understood by Antichrist. For a time it was thought that Mohammed was the Antichrist. He was thus designated by Pope Innocent III. (A.D. 1213.) The numeral 666 indicated the period of his dominion, which was therefore now about to come to an end. The antichristian prophets spoken of in the book of Revelation, seemed to denote the heresy which spread, with increased rapidity, from the close of the twelfth century. On the other hand, during the struggles which the German emperors had with the popes, it happened more than once that the former applied the title Anticnrist to the latter; we find instances of this as early as the times of the Hohenstaufen. Emperor Lewis, surnamed the Bavarian, also called Pope John XXII. the mystical Antichrist (Schröckh xxxi. p. 108.) The fanatical sects of the middle ages agreed, for the most part, in giving that name to the popes. Thus Amalrich of Bena taught: quia Papa esset Anti

a Concerning this work, which was formerly ascribed to Anselm, see Schröckh, xxviii. p. 427.

christus et Roma Babylon` et ipse sedet in monte Oliveti, i. e., in pinguedine potestatis (according to Cæsarius of Heisterbach), comp. Engelhardt, Kirchenhistorische Abhandlungen, p. 256. The same was done by the Spirituales, etc. Engelhardt, 1. c. p. 4, 56, 78, 88. Lücke, l. c. p. 520, 521. Wycliffe himself agreed with them (Trialogus quoted by Schröckh, xxxiv. p. 509,) as well as his disciples, Lewis Cobham (ibid. p. 557,) and Janow: Liber de Antichristo et membrorum eius anatomia (in Historia et monumentis Joh. Huss. P. i. p. 423-464, quoted by Schröckh, 1. c. p. 572.) Most of the orthodox theologians, e. g., Thomas Aquinas, were opposed to all literal interpretation of the Apocalypse. On the other hand, there were some, such as Roger Bacon, who delighted in apocalyptical interpretations, and calculations of time. See his Opus majus ed. Jebb. p. 169. Lücke, 1. c. p. 522.

§ 203.

THE INFLUENCE WHICH THE MIND OF THE AGE AND CHRISTIAN ART EXERTED UPON ESCHATOLOGY.

The mind of the age manifested itself in the works of Christian art, in which those subjects were preferred which had reference to the doctrine of the last things. While the hymn "Dies ira" 2 sounded the terrors of the general judgment into the ears of Christians, painters employed their talents in keeping alive in the minds of men a remembrance of the end of all things, by their representations of the dances of death, and of the general judgment, and Dante disclosed in his Divina Comedia the worlds of hell, purgatory, and paradise.1 There was an evident reaction between those works of imagination on the one hand, and the subtile reasonings and definitions of the scholastics on the other, so that the one may be explained by the other.

1 Thus most of the magnificent cathedrals on the continent were built at that very time, when the end of all things was supposed to be nigh at hand; see Gieseler, ii. § 27. note h.

2 The author of it was Thomas of Cellano; see Lisco, Dies iræ, Hymnus auf das Weltgericht, Berlin 1840. 4.

3 Grüneisen, Beiträge zur Geschichte und Beurtheilung der Todtentänze (im Kunstblatte zum Morgenblatt. 1830. No. 2226.) and his Nicholas Manuel, p. 73.

4 Dante Alighieri was born A.D. 1265, and died A.D. 1321. (as a theologian he belonged to the school of Thomas Aquinas.) There are German translations of his divina comedia by Streckfuss, Philalethes, Gusek, Kopish, and others. [The Vision, or Hell, Pugatory, and Paradise, of Dante Alighieri. Translated by the Rev. H. T. Cary, A.M. Lond. a new edit. 1841.]

§ 204.

THE RESURRECTION OF THE BODY.

The resurrection of the human body, with all its component parts, was, from the time of Jerome and Augustine, regarded as the orthodox doctrine of the Catholic Church. John Scotus Erigena adopted rather the earlier notions of Origen, but his views did not obtain the approbation of orthodox theologians. On the other hand, the Bogomiles, Cathari, and other heretical sects, revived the erroneous notion of the Gnostics, who, looking upon matter as the origin of sin, rejected the resurrection of the body.2 Moneta, a Dominican monk, defended the ecclesiastical doctrine in opposition to the Cathari.3 It was then further developed by the scholastics, especially by Thomas Aquinas, in whose writings we meet with many strange conjectures respecting the nature of the resurrectionbody.5 The theologians of the Greek Church held more closely to Scripture and the received tradition of the Church.

1 De div. nat. iv. 12. 13. p. 193: Omne siquidem quod in mundo ex mundo compositum incipit esse, necesse est resolvi et cum mundo interire. Necessarium erat exterius ac materiale corpus solvi in ea elementa ex quibus assumtum est: non autem necessarium perire, quoniam ex Deo erat, manente semper interiori illo et incommutabiliter stante in suis rationibus, secundum quas cum anima et in anima et per animam et propter animam constitutum est. Quoniam vero illius corporis materialis atque solubilis manet in anima species, non solum illo vivente, verum etiam post ejus solutionem et in elementa mundi reditum.......Est enim exterius et materiale corpus signaculum interioris, in quo forma animæ exprimitur, et per hoc forma ejus rationabiliter appellatur. Et ne me existimes duo corpora naturalia in uno homine docere: verum enim est. corpus, quo connaturaliter et consubstantialiter animæ compacto homo conficitur. Illud siquidem materiale quod est superadditum, rectius vestimentum quoddam mutabile et corruptibile veri ac naturalis corporis accipitur quam verum corpus; non enim verum est quod semper non manet (Aug.)......Inde fit quod semper non simpliciter, sed cum additamento aliquo ponitur corpus mortale vel corruptibile vel terrenum vel animale, ad discretionem ipsius simplicis corporis, quod primitus in homine editum est, et quod futurum est.-Cfr. ii. 23. p. 71: Semel enim et simul animas nostras et corpora in Paradiso conditor creavit, corpora dico cœlestia, spiritualia, qualia post resurrectionem futura sunt. Tumida namque corpora, mortalia, corruptibilia, quibus nunc opprimimur, non ex natura, sed ex delicto occasionem ducere, non est dubitandum. Quod ergo naturæ ex peccata adolevit, eo profecto renovata in Christo, et in pristinum statum restituta, carebit. Non enim potest naturæ esse, coæternum, quod ei adhæret propter peccatum.

2 The Beguines are said to have asserted, quod mortuo corpore hominis solus spiritus vel anima hominis redibit ad eum, unde exivit et cum eo sic reunietur, quod nihil remanebit, nisi quod ab æterno fuit Deus. quoted by Mosheim, p. 257. 58, compare § 206. note 9.-On the notions of the Bogomiles, see Engelhardt, Kirchenhistorische Abhhandlungen, p. 187, 188.

3 Summa adv. Catharos Lib. iv. Cap. 7. § 1.

4 Lomb. Sent. Lib. iv. Dist. 43 ss., (he follows for the most

part Augustine's Euchiridion and Hugo of St Victor de Sacram. ii. 1. 19.) In the subsequent part he modestly expresses himself as follows: Omnibus quæstionibus, quæ de hac re moveri solent, satisfacere non valeo.

5 These definitions are also for the greatest part founded upon Augustine (comp. vol. i. p. 402-409.) All man shall die previous to the general resurrection (on account of original sin); the resurrection will probably take place towards evening, for the heavenly bodies which rule over all earthly matter must first cease to move. Sun and moon will then meet again in that point where they were probably created. The resurrection will take place suddenly in relation to the effects produced by the Divine power, it will be gradual in relation to the part the angels will have in it. Thomas Aquinas denied that dust and ashes have a natural tendency to re-unite themselves to the souls to which they had been united in this world, but supposed that no other substance would rise from the grave, than that which existed in the moment of death. If that substance were to rise again which has been consumed during the present life, it would form a most unshapely mass. According to Qu.81. those who are raised from the dead, will be in the ætas juvenilis, quæ inter decrementum et incrementum constituitur. The difference of sexes will continue to exist, but without sensual appetites. All the organs of sense will still be active, with the exception of the sense of taste. It is however possible that even the latter may be rendered more perfect, and fitted for adequate functions and enjoyments. Hair and nails are one of the ornaments of man, and are therefore quite as necessary as blood. and other fluids. The resurrection-bodies will be exceedingly fine, and be delivered from the heavy weight which is now so burdensome to them; nevertheless they will be tangible, as the body of Christ could be touched after his resurrection. Their size will not increase after the resurrection, nor will they grow either thicker or thinner. To some extent they will also depend on space and time, yet the resurrection-bodies will move much faster, and more easily, from one place to another, than our present bodies; they will be at liberty to follow the tendency and impulses of the soul. They are glorified, bright, and shining, and can be perceived with glorified eyes alone. But