ratch before him, was, in truth and reality, the maker of every watch produced from it; there being no diference (except that the latter mani. ests a more exquisite skill) between the making of another watch with his own hands, by the regulation of iles, laths, chisels, &c. and the disposing, fixing, and inserting of these instruments, or of others equivalent to them, in the body of the watch already made, in such a manner as to form a new watch in the course of the movements which he had given to the old one. It is only working by one set of tools instead of ano ther." Repeating the arguments of the two chapters, this is thus closed: "What effect would this discovery have, or ought it to have, upon our former inference? What, as hath already been said, but to increase, beyond measure, our admiration of the skill which had been employed in the formation of such a machine? Or shall it, instead of this, all at once turn us round to an opposite conclusion, viz. that no art or skill whatever has been concerned in the business, although all other evidences of art and skill remain as they were, and this last and supreme piece of art be now added to the rest? Can this be maintained without absurdity? Yet this is atheism."

The author enters on the application of his argument in the third chapter, which is done by comparing an eye with a telescope. It is observed, As far as the examination of the instrument goes, there is precisely the same proof that the eye was made for vision, as there is that the telescope was made for assisting it. They are made upon the same principles; both being adjusted to the laws by which the transmission and refraction of rays of light are regulated." In pursuing the argument, Dr. P. says, The resemblance between the two cases is still more accurate, and obtains in more points than we have yet represented, or than we are, on the first view of the subject, aware of. In dioptric telescopes there is an imperfection of this nature. Pencils of light, in passing through glass leases, are separated into different colours, thereby tinging the object, especially the edges of it, as if it were viewed through a prism. To correct this inconvenience had been long a desideratum in the art. At last it

came into the mind of a sagacious optician, to enquire how this matter was managed in the eye; in which there was exactly the same difficulty to contend with as in the telescope. His observation taught him, that in the eye, the evil was cured by combining together lenses composed of different substances, i. e. of substances which possessed different refracting powers. Our artist borrowed from thence his hint, and produced a correction of the defect by imitating, in glasses made from different materials, the effects of the different humours through which the rays of light pass. before they reach the bottom of the eye. Could this be in the eye without purpose, which suggested to the optician the only effectual means of obtaining that purpose?" p. 23, 24.

Here follows a minute description of the structure of the eye, with the distinctions there are in the eyes of different animals, suited to their element and immediate use. From the eye the author passes on to a particular account of the conformation of the ear, in which, as well as in the description of the eye, every part is accurately noticed, and its use and operation pointed out.

In the fourth chapter the succession of plants and animals is described, in which the author proceeds from the plant to oviparous animals, and then says, "III. We may advance from animals which bring forth eggs, to animals which bring forth their young alive; and of this latter class, from the lowest to the highest; from irrational to rational life, from brutes to the human species, without perceiv- › ing, as we proceed, any alteration whatever in the terms of comparison. The rational animal does not produce its offspring with more certainty or success than the irrational animal; a man than a quadruped; a quadruped than a bird; nor, (for we may follow the gradation through its whole scale,) a bird than a plant; nor a plant than a watch, a piece of dead mechanism, would do, upon the supposition which has already so often been repeated. Rationality therefore has nothing to do in the business. If an account must be given of the contrivance which we observe, if it be demanded, whence arose either the contrivance by which the young animal is produced, or the contrivance manifested in the young animal itself,

it is not from the reason of the parent that any such account can be drawn. He is the cause of his offspring in the same sense as that in which a gardener is the cause of the tulip which grows upon his parterre, and in no other. We admire the flower, we examine the plant, we perceive the conduciveness of many of its parts to their end and office; we observe a provision for its nourishment, growth, protection and fecundity; but we never think of the gardener in all this. We attribute nothing of this to his agency; yet it may still be true that, without the gardener we should not have had the tulip. Just so is it with the succession of animals even of the highest order. For the contrivance discovered in the structure of the thing produced, we want a contriver. The parent is not that contriver. His consciousness decides that question. He is in total ignorance why that which is produced took its present form rather than any other. It is for him only to be astonished by the effect. We can no more look therefore to the intelligence of the parent animal for what we are in search of, a cause of relation and subserviency of parts to their use, which relation and subserviency we see in the procreated body, than we can refer the internal conformation of an acorn to the intelligence of the oak from which it dropped, or the structure of the watch to the intelligence of the watch which produced it; there being no difference, as far as argument is concerned, between an intelligence which is not exerted, and an intelligence which does not exist." p. 57-59.

In the fifth chapter the application of the argument is continued in answer to objections made by sceptical minds; the absurdity of such objections is plainly demonstrated, of which we introduce a part of the reply to the observation," that the parts were not intended for the use, but that the use arose out of the parts. This distinction is intelligible. A cabinetmaker rubs his mahogany with fish skin; yet it would be too much to assert, that the skin of the dog fish was made rough and granulated on purpose for the polishing of wood and the use of cabinet makers. There fore the distinction is intelligible. But I think that there is little place for it in the works of nature. When roundly

and generally affirmed of them, as it hath sometimes been, it amounts to such another stretch of assertion, as it would be to say, that all the implements of the cabinet maker's workshop, as well as his fish-skin, were substances accidentally configurated, which he had picked up and converted to his use; that his adzes. saws, planes, and gimlets were not made, as we suppose, to hew, cut, smooth, shape out, or bore wood with; but that these things being made, no matter with what design, or whether with any, the cabinet maker perceived that they were applicable to his purpose, and turned them to account.' p. 72, 73.

"Is it possible to believe that the eye was formed without any regard to vision; that it was the animal itself which found out, that, though formed with no such intention, it would serve to see with; and that the use of the eye, as an organ of sight, resulted from this discovery, and the animal's application of it? The same question may be asked of the ear; the same of all the senses. None of the senses fundamentally depend upon the election of the ani mal; consequently neither upon his sagacity, nor his experience. It is the impression which objects make upon them that constitutes their use. Under that impression he is passive. He may bring objects to the sense, or within its reach; he may select these objects; but over the impres sion itself he has no power, or very little; and that properly is the sense. p. 73, 74.

In the close of the sixth chapter, which contains the argument cumulative, the author says, "The argument is cumulative in the fullest sense of that term. The eye proves it without the ear; the ear without the eye. The proof in each example is complete; for when the design of the part, and the conduciveness of its structure to that design, is shewn, the mind may set itself at rest: no future consideration can detract any thing from the force of the example." p. 83.

Chap. VII. contains a description of the mechanical and immechanical parts and functions of animals and vegetables. The principal of muscular motion is first considered, from which the author proceeds to the operation of the gastric juice and se

cretion. The chapter closes thus: My object in the present chapter has been to teach three things: first, that it is a mistake to suppose, that in reasoning from the appearances of nature, the imperfection of our knowledge proportionably affects the certainty of our conclusion; for in many cases it does not affect it at all: secondly, that the different parts of the animal frame may be classed and distributed, according to the degree of exactness with which we can compare them with works of art: thirdly, that the mechanical parts of our frame, or those in which this comparison is most complete, although constituting probably the coarsest portions of nature's workmanship, are the properest to be alledged as proofs and specimens of design." p. 98.

The eighth chapter contains an accurate and curious description of the principal bones of the human frame, with their motion and use: the following are particularized. The vertebræ of the human neck; the forearm; the spine; the enlargement and contraction of the chest to allow for the play of the lungs; the patella or knee-pan; and the shoulder blade. From the bones the author passes on to the joints, describing the way by which the blood-vessels, nerves, and tendons are conducted; the gristle which defends the bones that work against each other: "the mucilage, more emollient and slippery than oil, which is constantly softening and lubricating the parts that rub upon each other, and thereby diminishing the effect of attrition in the highest possible degree."

The ninth chapter treats of the muscles, which, with their tendons, are the instruments by which animal motion is performed. It will be our business to point out instances in which, and properties with respect to which, the disposition of these muscles is as strictly mechanical as that of the wires and strings of a puppet." p. 132.

The relation of the muscles to the bones is pointed out; the nature of muscular motion, the property of the muscles not interfering or obstructing each other's motion, their positions, their variety of forms, are described, and the Dr. proceeds: "The ejaculations can never be too often repeated, How many things must go right for us to be an hour at ease!

How many more to be vigorous and active! Yet vigour and activity are, in a vast plurality of instances, preserved in human bodies, notwithstanding that they depend upon so great a number of instruments of motion, and notwithstanding that the defect or disorder sometimes of a very small instrument, of a single pair, for instance, out of the four hundred and forty-six muscles which are employed, may be attended with grievous inconveniency. There is piety and good sense in the following observations, taken out of the Religious Philosopher. With much compassion,' says this writer, as well as astonishment at the goodness of our loving Creator, have I considered the sad state of a certain gen'tleman, who, as to the rest, was in pretty good health, but only wanted the use of these two little muscles that 'serve to lift up the eyelids, and so had almost lost the use of his sight, being forced, as long as this defect lasted, to shove up his eyelids every moment with his own hands!' In general we may remark how little those, who enjoy the perfect use of their organs, know the comprehensiveness of the blessing, the variety of their obligation. They perceive a result, but they think little of the multitude of concurrences and rectitudes which go to form it." p. 140,

141.

We have then a variety of instances in which we may notice some advantages of structure, which are more conspicuous in muscles of a certain class or description than in others.

The attention is engaged in the tenth chapter by a very minute description of the vessels of animal bodies, beginning with the circulation of the blood, in which the author shews, first, the disposition of the blood vessels, i. e. the laying of the pipes; and secondly, the construction of the engine at the centre, viz. the heart, for driving the blood through them. Under the first, the security of these vessels is shewn in the provision made for their conveyance and defence to all parts of the body; and in the second place, the formation of the heart and its action, (which is by dilation and contraction,) are described. The author says, "the simplest idea of its action is, that by each contraction, a portion of blood

is forced as by a syringe into the arteries; and, at each dilatation, an equal portion is received from the veins. This produces at each pulse a motion and change in the mass of blood, to the amount of what the cavity contains, which, in a full grown human heart, I understand, is about an ounce, or two table-spoonsfull. How quickly these changes succeed one another, and by this succession how sufficient they are to support a .stream or circulation throughout the system, may be understood by the following computation, abridged from Keill's Anatomy, p. 117. ed. 3d. Each ventricle will at least contain 'one ounce of blood. The heart • contracts four thousand times in one

that

there passes through the heart, every hour, four thousand ounces, or three hundred and fifty pounds of blood. Now the whole inass of blood is said to be about twentyfive pounds, so that a quantity of 'blood equal to the whole mass of blood passes through the heart 'fourteen times in one hour; which ́ ́ is about once every four minutes.' Consider what an affair this is when we come to very large animals. The aorta of a whale is larger in the bore than the main pipe of the water works at London Bridge; and the water roaring in its passage through that pipe is inferior, in impetus and velocity, to the blood gushing from the whale's heart. Hear Dr. Hunter's account of the dissection of a whale. The aorta measured a foot diameter. Ten or fifteen gallons of blood is thrown out of the heart at a ⚫stroke, with an immense velocity, 'through a tube of a foot diameter.' The whole idea fills the mind with wonder." p. 164-166.

The communication of the blood to the lungs is next noticed, and we are introduced to an examination of the manner in which the aliment gets into the blood, and its progress through the intestines. Digestion and the operation of the gastric juice come under consideration, and the remaining vessels of the body are noticed in succession.

The animal structure, regarded as a mass, forms the subject of the ele. venth chapter. Here the construction of the frame is described, the situation, correspondence, and use of the respective parts are pointed out.

The twelfth chapter, on comparative anatomy, is intended, by the nu merous instances it contains, to shew the resemblance that exists in animal nature, and that all its varieties and deflections are subvervient to special occasions and utilities.

(To be concluded in our next.)

CXXXIV. DISCOURSES preached on several Occasions. By JOHN ERSKINE, D D. one of the Ministers of the Old Grayfriars Church, Edinburgh, 2d Edition, 890.

an

R. Erskine, we are informed, is mini ster of the establishment in Scotland, and many of the discourses here printed were addressed ad clerum, being preached before different sy nods, and on other public occasions.

The contents of this volume are as follows: I. The Qualifications neces sary for Teachers of Christianity, from James iii. 1.II. Ministers cautioned against giving Offence, 2 Cor. vi. 3.- III. Blessing of Christian Teachers, Is. xxx. 20-IV. Difficulties of the pastoral office, 2 Cor. ii. 10. V. Motives for hearing Sermons, Prov. viii. 33, 34.VI Directions for hearing Sermons, Luke viii. 18. VII. Instruc tions and Consolations from the Unchangeable of Christ, Heb. xiii. 8.—VIII. The Agency of God in Human Greatness, 1 Chron. xxix. 12.

IX. The People of God considered as all Righteous, Is. Ix.21.— X-XV. The important Mystery of the Incarnation, 1 Tim. iii. 15, 16.

-XVI. Power given to Christ for blessing the Elect, John xvii. 2.

As a specimen of this writer's sentiments and style, we offer the fol lowing extracts to our readers.

of

The first discourse is founded on James iii. 1. thus rendered by Dr. Erskine, "Be not many teachers, knowing that we shall undergo a severer judgment." The meaning which is the office of a spiritual in structor is attended with great diffi culty and danger, and the duties of it are hard to be discharged. Let not, therefore, every man rush into that office. Let none undertake t rashly, and while destitute of the gifts and graces necessary to so 51

cred a function; for teachers, as well as hearers, must appear before the judgment seat of Christ. God will require more from teachers than from others; and their private miscarriages, or unfaithfulness to the duties of their office, will expose them to the severest punishments."

"The principal qualifications necessary in the spiritual instructor" are stated to be "personal religion; soundness in the faith; a good genius, improved by a competent measure of true learning; prudence and discretion; and a due mixture of a studious disposition, and of an active spirit." After amplifying each of these topics, the preacher makes an application to students, parents, patrons, and to the members of the synod of Glasgow, before which it was preached.

As a specimen of the Doctor's style and manner we select the following extract from the application of the third discourse.

"And now, I appeal to your un derstandings and to your hearts, my respectable hearers. Instructions must be profitable, which, by the blessing of God, remove or prevent the most dreadful misery, and secure the most valuable enjoyments. And this is the case, when the guilty, hearkening to the gospel call, find pardon through the blood of Jesus, acceptance through his merits, and sanctification by his Spirit; when the wicked forsakes his way, and the unrighteous his thoughts, and turns to the Lord; and when, through acknowledgment of the truth, those are recovered from the snare of the devil, who were formerly led captive by him at his will. Dreadful is his delusion, who thinks their life useless or wretched, who, waiting upon God in the way of his appointment, renew and exert their spiritual strength, and, if they cannot mount with wings as eagles, run and are not weary, or at least walk and are not faint. Is not the work of righteousness peace, and the effect thereof quiet ness and assurance for ever? Have they no dignity, who are men of another spirit, and, in religious and moral qualifications, more excellent than their neighbours? Does society gain little, when the wickedness of the wicked comes to an end, by the grace, not by the judgments, of God? VOL. I.

Where is his benevolence, where, is his heart, who feels no emotion of gladness, when his brethren are thus honourable and happy?

"Condemn not, therefore, religious establishments, whether formed by individuals, united societies, or whole nations, which secure useful teachers, so far as human prudence can secure them, not to the present race only, but to future generations. Censure not the rulers, who devise wise and salutary plans, for thus promoting the best interests of mankind. Think not that they sin against their subjects, when, as nurs ing fathers, or nursing mothers, they provide for them wholesome spiritual nourishment. Censure they indeed merit, who invade the sacred rights of conscience, and compel the reluctant to profess the national religion. But censure not those, who pity, and supply with the means of instruction, multitudes, whom poverty would disable, or covetousness and inattention to a future world indispose, to provide teachers for themselves, and who, without their friendly aid, would otherwise be destroyed for lack of knowledge. Boast not thy patriotism, or love to mankind, if thou dost, what in thee lies, to remove the chief restraints of wickedness, and to seal up the springs of private, of family, and of public happiness. If thou art zealous for light, improvement, and civilization, thy zeal for promoting them, is not according to knowledge. If pretenders to liberality of sentiment, storm or undermine one religious establishment, and no other or better, of larger or lesser extent, replaces it; be not surprised that darkness covers the land, and thick darkness the people; that evil men and seducers wax worse and worse; that cour teousness gives place to rudeness, gentleness to harshness, compassion to cruelty.

"But, must it not be acknowledg ed, that congregations sometimes derive little or no benefit from sermons, and that to their teachers much of the blame belongs? It must be acknowledged. This, however, may be accounted for, in perfect consistency with what I have urged. Bad men regard the effect of what they preach, with cold indifference, except in so far as worldly honour or

4 A