2

cover of it to throw wanton ridicule on holy things. True, many decrees were passed against this custom :3 still the disorder continued to increase.

The first to mention this is Jo. Beleth in Explicat. divin. offic. cap. 70, de iis festivitatibus, quae Christi Nativitatem proxime sequuntur: Debent ergo vesperae Natalis primo integre celebrari, ac postea conveniunt diaconi quasi in tripudio, cantantque Magnificat cum Antiphona de s. Stephano, -et universum officium crastinum celebrant Diaconi, quod Stephanus fuerit Diaconus. —Sic eodem modo omne officium perficient sacerdotes ipso die b. Joannis, quia hic sacerdos fuerit, et pueri in ipso festo Innocentum, quia Innocentes pro Christo occisi sunt. Cap. 72: Festum Hypodiaconorum, quod vocamus stultorum, a quibusdam perficitur in circumcisione, a quibusdam vero in Epiphania, vel in ejus octavis. Fiunt autem quatuor tripudia post nativitatem Domini in Ecclesia, Levitarum scilicet, Sacerdotum, Puerorum, i. e. minorum aetate et ordine, et Hypodiaconorum, qui ordo incertus est. Unde fit, ut ille quandoque annumeretur inter sacros ordines, quandoque non, quod expresse ex eo intelligitur, quod certum tempus non habeat, et officio celebretur confuso. (Durantis repeats the contents of these two chapters in his Rationale Divin. offic. lib. vii. c. 42 in fine.) Cap. 120: Restat,—ut-agamus-de quadam libertate Decembris, quae hoc tempore in quibusdam locis observatur. Sunt nempe nonnullae Ecclesiae, in quibus usitatum est, ut vel etiam Episcopi vel Archiepiscopi in coenobiis cum suis ludant subditis, ita ut etiam sese ad lusum pilae demittant. Atque haec quidem libertas ideo dicta est Decembrica, quod olim apud ethnicos moris fuerit, ut hoc mense servi et ancillae et pastores velut quandam libertate donarentur, fierentque cum dominis suis pari conditione, communia festa agentes post collectionem messium. Quamquam vero magnae Ecclesiae, ut est Remensis, hanc ludendi consuetudinem observent, videtur tamen laudabilius esse non ludere. Most remarkable for wanton mockery of ecclesiastic. al institutions are the festum innocentum (in the monastic schools a child-abbot, in the cathedral schools a child-bishop was chosen; in Mayence this festive custom has been continued down to modern times. Cf. F. A. Dürr, comm. hist. de Episcopo Puerorum vulgo vom Schulbischof. Mogunt. 1755. 4. E. Meyer's Gesch. d. Hamburgischen Schul- und Unterrichtswesens im Mittelalter, Hamburg, 1843), and the festum hypodiaconorum (cf. du Tiliot mémoires pour servir à l'histoire de la fête des foux. A Lausanne et à Genève, 1751. 8. du Fresne s. v. Kalendae). In Ratisbon the abuse was so great that Innocent IV. in 1249 issued a prohibition against it: see Monumenta boica, xiii. 214. Gemeiner's Reichstadt Regensburgische Chronik, Regensb. 1800. 4. i. 357. However, the grossest extravagances of this nature seem to belong originally to the succeeding period. In many places, for instance in Rouen, an ass-feast was celebrated on Christmas-day: else. where, as in Beauvais, a ceremony of the same kind was kept on the 14th of June, in com. memoration of the flight into Egypt. Cf. du Fresne s. v. Festum asinorum. Another festival, accompanied with similar extravagances of the clergy, took place in Evreux on the 1st of May, so early as about 1200. Du Tiliot, I. c. p. 26 ss.

'The first was in the year 1198, by Cardinal Peter, papal Legate, addressed to Odo, bishop of Paris, and published by him (ed. Petrus de Gussanvilla in Append. ad Petri Blesensis opp. and quoted from this in Bibl. Patrum Lugd. xxiv. 1370): didicimus, quod in festo circumcisionis dominicae in eadem ecclesia [Parisiensi] tot consueverunt enormitates et opera flagitiosa committi, quod locum sanctum, in quo gloriosa Virgo gratam sibi mansionem elegit (the Church of Notre Dame), non solum foeditate verborum, verum etiam sanguinis effusione plerumque contingit inquinari; at eatenus adinventio tam perni ciosae temeritatis invaluit, ut sacratissima dies, in qua mundi Redemptor voluit circum. cidi, festum fatuorum nec immerito generaliter consueverit appellari. Thereupon, in 1199, followed Odo's directions for a proper celebration of the Circumcision of our Lord, and of the Feast of St. Stephen (quoniam festivitas b. Protomartyris Stephani ejusdem fere subjacebat dissolutionis et temeritatis incommodo); and a confirmation of these directions by Petrus Cambius, the next Bishop of Paris, in the year 1208 (both 1. c.). Nev.

§ 80.

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE.

Schröckh, xxix. 311. G. Schmidt über das Predigen in d. Landessprachen während d. Mittelalters, in d. theol. Studien u. Kritiken, 1846, ii. 243. Deutsche Predigten des xii. und xiii. Jahrhh., herausg. v. K. Roth, Quedlinb. u. Leipz. 1839. Deutsche Predigten des xiii. u. xiv. Jahr., herausg. v. H. Leyser, ebendas. 1838, Vorwort S. xiii. [Mediaval Sermons, Christ. Remembr. July, 1854. De l'instruction publique au moyen age, Stallaert and Van Der Haeghen, a memoir issued by the Belgian Academy in 1854.]

In comparison with ecclesiastical pageantry, preaching, the more spiritual part of divine worship, was either quite abandoned, or managed in a very unprofitable manner. Most of the sermons of the 12th century were short homilies full of allegorical and mystical interpretations; they were often nothing more than stiff translations from some Latin Homiliarium. Accordingly, the wandering preachers of repentance and crusades made all the more impression on the people. The most distinguished preacher of this century is St. Bernard.1

ertheless, the Council of Paris ann. 1212, Pars iv. c. 16 (in Mansi xxii. 842), found it necessary to enjoin even on the bishops: A festis vero follorum, ubi baculus accipitur, omnino abstineatur. Idem fortius monachis et monialibus prohibemus. The first sentence is repeated by Robertus Legatus in Conc. Rotomag. ann. 1214, P. iii. c. 16 (Mansi xxii. 920).-Innocent III. in the year 1210 (Decr. Greg. lib. iii. tit. i. cap. 12): Interdum ludi fiunt in Ecclesiis theatrales, et non solum ad ludibriorum spectacula introducuntur in eis monstra larvarum, verum etiam in aliquibus anni festivitatibus, quae continue natalem Christi sequuntur, diaconi, presbyteri, ac subdiaconi vicissim insaniae suae ludibria exercere praesumunt; per gesticulationum suarum debacchationes obscoenas in conspectu populi decus faciunt clericale vilescere, etc. Statuta Eccl. Nivernensis, ann. 1246, cap. 3 (Martene thes. anecdot. iv. 1069, Mansi xxiii. 731): Quia in festo stultorum, scil. Innocentium et anni novi, in Ecclesia vestra multa fiunt-inhonesta, sub poena excommunicationis inhibemus districte, ne talia festa irrisoria de caetero facere praesumant. Constitt. Petri Archiep. Burdegalensis in Conc. Copriniacensi ann. 1260, cap. 2 (Mansi xxiii. 1033) Cum in balleatione (dance) quae in festo ss. Innocentium in quibusdam Ecclesiis fieri inolevit, multae rixae, contentiones et turbationes-consueverint provenire, praedictas balleationes ulterius sub intimatione anathematis fieri prohibemus, necnon et Episcopos in praedicto festo creari: cum hoc in Ecclesia Dei ridiculum existat, et hoc dignitatis episcopalis ludibrio fiat. Since these prohibitions were found fruitless, they be came at last more complying. Conc. Salzburgense ann. 1274, cap. 17: Ad haec quidam ludi noxii, quos vulgaris elocutio episcopatus puerorum appellat, in quibusdam Ecclesiis exercentur adeo insolenter, quod nonnunquam enormes culpae et damna gravia subsequun. tur. Ex ipsis hos ludos in Ecclesiis et a personis ecclesiasticis de caetero fieri prohibemüs, nisi forte parvi sexdecim annorum et infra fuerint, qui hujusmodi ludos exercent, quibús alii seniores ipsi nullatenus se misceant aut intersint. Ordinationes Joannis Can. tuar. Archiep. in domibus religiosis, ann. 1279 (Mansi xxiv. 264): Puerilia solemnia, quae in festo solent fieri Innocentum, post vesperas s. Joannis tantum inchoari permittimus, e in crastino in ipsa die Innocentum totaliter terminentur.

Schmidt, as cited above. S. 258.

2

From the heretics of Southern France, Peter of Bruis, Henry, and the Waldenses, the common people first heard sermons which brought before them the simple doctrines of Christianity intelligibly and impressively: accordingly, they met with great success. It was probably their example which actuated Fulco, pastor of Neuilly, in the bishopric of Paris († 1202),3 whose exhortations to repentance and morality had the more powerful effect, from the strangeness of such spiritual admonitions to the people. In particular, the first two mendicant orders were roused to action by them; for the Franciscans adopted into the service of the Church those very peculiarities by means of which the heretics made so great an impression: they went forth among the people with an intelligible and animated style of preaching; while the Dominicans likewise, in addresses to the common people, made the extinction of heresy their principal aim. Although the Franciscans, as tools of the Pope, soon became for the most part untrue to their original purpose, still from time to time the ancient enthusiasm reappeared among them in popular preaching; as, for instance, in the Franciscan David at Augsburg (about the year 1250), and his pupil Berthold at Ratisbon († 1272).

See below, ◊ 87 and 88.

'Jacobi a Vitriaco hist. occident. c. 6: In diebus illis suscitavit Deus caeli spiritum cujusdam sacerdotis ruralis, simplicis valde et illiterati, de episcopatu Parisiensi, nomine F conis. Sicut enim piscatores et idiotas elegit, ut gloriam suam alteri non daret : sic Dominus eo quod parvuli petiissent panem, literati autem circa disputationes vanitatis et pugnas verborum intenti, frangere non curabant, praedictum Presbyterum tanquam stel. lam in medio nebulae, et pluviam in medio siccitatis,-ad vineam suam excolendam misericorditer elegit.—He made his appearance as a preacher in Paris, cap. 8, et exinde alii tam doctores quam discipuli ad ejus rudem et simplicem praedicationem concurrebant. Alter alterum invitabat,-dicentes: Venite et audite Fulconem presbyterum, tanquam alterum Paulum. Ipse autem confortatus in Domino-coepit vitiorum monstra fortiter adminiculante Domino prosternere. On the effect of his preaching: Publicae meretrices capillos scindentes consuetam turpitudinem abnegabant. Sed et alii peccatores Sathanae et pompis ejus cum lacrimis renunciantes, ab ipso veniam postulabant. He soon acquired fame as a worker of miracles. In omnem autem Christianorum terram exivit sonus praedicationis ipsius, et fama sanctitatis ejus divulgabatur ubique. Sed et discipuli ejus, quos ad praedicandum mittebat, velut Apostoli Christi, cum summo honore et reverentia recipiebantur ab omnibus. His example was followed by many (cap. 9); but there rose up false preachers also, who desired nothing but their own advancement (cap.10). Ra dulphi Abb. Coggeshalensis (after 1207) chron. Anglicanum, in Rerum Gallicarum et Francicarum scriptt. (begun by Bouquet, continued by Brial) xviii. 80. Wilken's Gesch. d. Kreuzzuge, Th. 5, 8. 93.

See above, ◊ 68.

See deutsche Mystiker des 14. Jahrh., herausgeg. von F. Pfeiffer. Bd. 1 (Leipzig, 1845), s. 309. Einleit. s. xxvi.

• Concerning him see espécially Joannes Vitoduranus (a Franciscan † 1348) in chron.

The religious education of the people remained limited as before."

$81.

ART EMPLOYED IN THE SERVICE OF THE CHURCH.

The progress of the poetic art in Germany since the 12th century bore much fair fruit of popular sacred poetry (called Leisen from Kyrie Eleison, the common ending of the verses).-They were indeed for the most part hymns to the Virgin; but so early as the 13th century the Easter hymn, Christ is risen, and the Whitsuntide hymn, Now we pray the Holy Ghost,' were in existence; while the enthusiastic spirit of St. Francis of Assisi, still lingering in his order, gave birth to the sequences of the Dies irae

ad ann. 1265 (in Thesaurus historiae Helvetiae. Tiguri, 1735. fol. p. 6): Circiter ista tempora floruit frater Bertoldus Ordinis Fratrum minorum in Alamania egregius praedicator, qui circumeundo et perambulando frequenter Alamaniam ipsam mirabiliter illustravit, et peccatores innumeros verbo et exemplo pariter ad Dominum convertebat, cujus memoria in benedictione est, et adhuc recentissima meo tempore perseverat in hominibus. In campis saepius solebat praedicare, et tunc populus ex omnibus partibus finitimis et locis circumadjacentibus in maxima multitudine confluebat.-Ipse fuit linguae disertae, vitae sanctae, magnae literaturae, sicut adhuc evidenter apparet et patet in diversis voluminibus ab eo compilatis sermonum, quos rusticanos appellari voluit. In suis praedicationibus peccatores inveterati, obstinati ac sceleratissimi surrexerunt aperte peccata sua confitentes, et vitam turpem praeteritam abdicantes, veniamque postulantes, et satisfactionem ac emendam dignam promittentes.-Post mortem suam in civitate Bawariae dicta Ratispona, in qua, ut fertur, natus et alitus erat, multis multo tempore coruscavit miraculis in loco Fratrum minorum, ubi sepultus est. Cf. Wadding ad ann. 1272, no. 16. Matth. Raderi Bavaria sancta (Tomi iv. Monach. 1704. fol.), i. 293. Müller's Schweizergeschichte, i. 530. Berthold's Stammtafel b. Roth a. a. O. s. 80. Mons's Anzeiger, 7r Jahrg. (1838) s. 218. See also Berthold the Franciscan's German sermons, some entire, some in abstract, published (from a manuscript at Heidelberg) by Ch. Friedr. Kling, Berlin, 1824. 8. Comp. J. Grimm's remarks in the Wiener Jahrbucher (1825), xxxii. 194, where Berthold's life, activity, and preaching are fully treated of, and some other manuscripts of sermons are authenticated as his. Comp. Leyser Vorw. s. xvi.-At the same time lived also the unknown monk, to whom the German sermons of the 13th century published by Grieshaber, Part I. Stuttg. 1844, are to be referred.

'Statuta synodalia Richardi Cicestrensis Episc. ann. 1246 (Mansi xxiii. 714): Volumus, ut a propriis sacerdotibus laici moneantur, ut orationem dominicam, et symbolum Apostolorum addiscant (see Div. 1, § 10, note 29), et salutatione b. Virginis; et haec sacerdotes parochianos in lingua saltem materna diligenter et frequenter doceant. Compare Odonis Ep. Paris praecepta, above, § 78, note 12.

H. Hoffman's Gesch. d. deutschen Kirchenliedes bis auf Luther's Zeit. Breslau, 1832, s. 38.

The Sequentia, properly the chant following the halleluiah in the mass, afterward in general the choral music introduced in the mass.

By Thomas of Cellano, the companion of St. Francis, see above, § 68, note 3. Compare Mohnike, Kirchen und literarhistor. Studien (Stralsund, 1824), I. i. 3.

5

and Stabat mater. From the representation of the events of sacred history, as they were brought forward in the churches, on their appropriate festivals, with antiphonal chants and simple ceremonies, there were developed in the 13th century regular ecclesiastical dramas (called mysteries): the plots were derived partly from Bible history, partly from the legends of Saints. With regard to the art of ecclesiastical architecture, which had been greatly improved since the 11th century, particularly by the monks, the pointed style remarkable for its sublimity grew up in Germany in the 13th century, and found in the Masonic Society, which took its rise at the same time, its guardians. The Cathedral of Magdeburg of the date 1208, the Church of St. Elizabeth at Marburg (in 1230), the Cathedral of Cologne since 1248, became the most eminent types of this new style of church architecture.

§ 82.

KALEND-GUILDS.

Das Gildenwesen im Mittelalter, von Dr. W. E. Wilda, Berlin, 1831.

In the course of the 12th and 13th centuries the Trades-guilds1 grew up; besides furthering their especial ends, their office was to promote the honor, harmony, and mutual support of their associates; they venerated particular saints as their patrons, and from time to time united in common worship and social festivals. Following their example, the clergy of Northern and Central Germany, in the 13th century, extended their decanal unions, which held their meetings on the Kalends, to Kalend-guilds, which in✦ By Jacoponus, see above, ◊ 70, note 14, and Mohnike, I. ii. 335, as cited above.

• Schauspiele des Mittelalters, herausg. u. erklart v. F. J. Mone, 2 Bde. Karlsruhe, 1846. Etudés sur les mystères dramatiques et sur divers manuscrits de Gerson, par Onésime Leroy, Paris, 1840.

Chr. Ludw. Stieglitz Gesch. d. Baukunst in 3 Abtheil. 2te Ausg. Nürnberg, 1837. Die Bauhutte des Mittelalters in Deutschland, von C. Heideloff. Nürnberg, 1844. 4. J. Kreuser's Kolner Dombriefe, oder Beiträge zur altchristl. Kirchenbaukunst. Berlin, 1844. 1 Wilda, s. 228.

1 Wilda, s. 352. The earlier works on the Kalend-guilds give much information on their statutes and on the grants they received, but none on their origin. There are many of these extant on some particular guilds. These are of more general purport: Joach. Felleri diss. de Fratribus Kalendariis, notis illustrata a Christ. Franc. Paullini, Francof. ad M. 1692. 4. Chr. G. Blumberg's Abbildung des Kalandes, Chemnitz, 1721. 12.-Just as the monasteries granted to their benefactors a share in their good works, and promised them prayers and masses for their souls, so the same may have been done in early times