6

newly-instituted episcopal officials and penitentiaries. When, from the 13th century onward, the titular bishops' also came into de causis matrimonialibus, simoniae, vel aliis, quae degradationem vel amissionem beneficii, vel depositionem exigant, nisi de speciali mandato sui pontificis, nullatenus cognoscere vel diffinire praesumant, nec Officiales habere, excepto civitatis Archidiacono qui alias officiales habere consuevit. C. p. Pertsch, s. 81, 190, 197.

Single examples of this office occur in the 12th century (Thomassin. P. i. lib. ii. c. 8, 3. Pertsch, s. 271): in the thirteenth they become more common (Conc. Paris. ann. 1212, P. iii. c. 11, and Conc. Rotomag. ann. 1214, P. i. c. 11: [Episcopi] Officiales fideles habeant et prudentes sine personarum acceptione gratis justitiam exhibentes). In the Decret. Greg. the officials were not even mentioned in lib. i. tit. 28, De officio vicarii. On the other hand, in the lib. Sextus Decretalium, lib. i. tit. 13, the chap. De officio vicarii refers only to them. There are several names for them: Officiarius (Conc. Cicestrens. ann. 1289, c. 10), Vicarius in spiritualibus et temporalibus (Conc. ap. Nobiliacum, ann. 1290), Tenens vices Episcopi (Conc. Pergam. ann. 1311, rubr. 22), Vicarius in spiritualibus (1. c. rubr. 23), Vicarius seu officialis (1. c. rubr. 24).-The first trace of distinction between the Vicarius in spiritualibus and the Officialis seems to be found in the Conc. Colon. ann. 1280, see Pertsch, s. 273. Comp. Joh. Wolf's hist. Abhandl. v. d. geistl. Commissarien im Erzstift Mainz. Göttingen, 1797. 8.

Innocent III. gave rise to them by the decree. Conc. Later. ann. 1215, cap. 10 (Decr. Greg. lib. i. tit. 31, c. 15): Praecipimus, tam in cathedralibus quam in aliis conventuali. bus ecclesiis viros idoneos ordinari, quos Episcopi possint coadjutores et cooperatores habere, non solum in praedicationis officio, verum etiam in audiendis confessionibus, et poenitentiis injungendis, ac caeteris, quae ad salutem pertinent animarum. Si quis autem hoc adimplere neglexerit, districtae subjaceat ultioni. Cf. Thomassin. P. I. lib. ii. c. 10, 5 ss. To these penitentiaries now fell also the casus Episcopo reservati: about these consult Thomassin. P. I. lib. ii. c. 14.

7 Episcopi in partibus infidelium, or Episcopi titulares, had already been virtually estab lished in Spain, ever since the invasion of the Saracens (Thomassin. P. i. lib. i. c. 27, 8 ss.), and in the Byzantine empire (1. c. c. 28, § 4 ss.). In the 13th century some wealthy bishops of the West began to employ their colleagues, who were driven about that time from the East, as Vicarii in pontificalibus or Suffraganei. The first recognized suffragan bishops are Henricus Ostiensis Episc. in Trêves, in the year 1241 (Honthem. hist. Trevir. i. 640); in Mayence, 1248, Theodericus Ep. Vironensis (Johannis rerum Mogunt. ii. 421, and the continuation to Bodmann's Rheingauische Alterthitmer. Mainz, 1819. 4. s. 832); soon after suffragans are found at Cologne (J. H. Heister Suffraganei Colonienses. Colon. 1614. p. 65): about 1255, Thomas Cantipratensis is suffragan bishop in Cambray. After the complete conquest of Palestine by the Saracens, the banished bishops wandered about the West in great numbers, and offered their services every where, especially to the abbeys exempt from episcopal jurisdiction, and this led the way to great abuses. Clement V. declared at the Conc. Viennense, ann. 1311 (Clementin. lib. i. tit. iii. c. 5): In plerisque Ecclesiis clero carentibus et populo christiano multos frequenter, et religiosos praesertim, improvida superiorum provisio ad pontificatus adsumit honorem, qui nec, ut expediret, prodesse, nec praeesse, ut deceret, valentes, instabilitate vagationis et mendicitatis opprobrio serenitatem pontificalis obnubilant dignitatis. Accordingly, he decreed, ut nullus de caetero, quantacumque dignitate praepollens, nisi speciali super hoc auctoritati sedis apostolicae fulciatur, de pastore provideat cathedrali ecclesiae, sibi qualitercumque subjectae, quae clero careat et subditis Christianis nullusque religiosus a suo umquam, quod provisioni tali consentiat, licentietur Praelato. Cf. Conc. Ravennate II. ann. 1311, rubr. 24. De excessibus Praelatorum:-Valde indignum est, juri Ecclesiae et honestati contrarium, quod admittantur et recipiantur ad episcopalia exercenda ignoti et vagabundi Episcopi, et maxime lingua et ritu dissoni : ex quorum ordinatione, sicut experientia docuit, proveniunt duo mala, quia promoventur incogniti, inhabiles et indimi, et etiam de ipsorum rita ordinatione dubitatur, etc. Conc. Ravenn. iii. ann. 1314 : Item ex

vogue, the wealthier bishops found so many substitutes, that they had no further occasion to trouble themselves about the exercise of their office. In imitation of their example, the Cathedral canons also transferred their ecclesiastical duties to vicars, and became idle gluttons.R

§ 65.

MORALITY OF THE CLERGY.

! The ecclesiastical laws which aimed at the outward morality of the clergy were indeed significantly increased in severity, and often enough renewed in this period. They did not, however, produce their intended effect, from the want of an inward moral culture. An effort was made at the end of the eleventh century to restore in the religious foundations the canonical mode of life,1 hortamur, -ac attentius requirimus omnes et singulos exemptos, ut nullos Episcopos peregrinos vel ignotos, et populum subditum citra mare non habentes, invitent, seu admittant ad ordinationes tenendas, seu alia pontificalia exercenda in ipsorum Ecclesiis, monasteriis vel locis. In the 14th century they began to find employment more generally with the bishops as Vicarii in Pontificalibus, particularly in Germany, Spain, and Portugal. In France, on the other hand, suffragan bishops never became customary. Cf. Thomassin. P. i. lib. i. c. 27 ss. F. A. Dürr diss. de Suffraganeis s. Vicariis generalibus in pontificalibus Episcoporum Germaniae. Mogunt. 1782. 4. Planck, IV. ii. 604.

There was a brief of Clement IV. in 1266, in which the canons of Merseburg were forbidden this abuse, see Fraustadt's Einführung der Reform. im Hochstifte Merseburg. Leipzig, 1843, s. 10.

1 Cf. Thomassinus, P. i. lib. iii. c. 11 and c. 21. According to Chrodegang's rule, the canons possessed the ecclesiastical revenues in common; however, each one remained in sole possession of his own private means. The Cathedral of S. Rufus in Avignon, founded in the year 1039, is reputed the first to have regular canons, who lived in complete community of goods (Pagi crit. ad h. a. no. 8 and 10): Yet this regulation was not strictly enforced until Nicolas II. and Alexander II. sought to re-establish the vita canonica universally (see Part i. § 26, note 3), and at the same time Petrus Damiani asserted the authority of St. Augustine's precept. Petrus D. stated (lib. i. ep. 6, ad Alexandrum P.), with reference to the sermones ii. de moribus clericorum by this father, quia clericus, qui pecuniam possidet, ipse Christi possessio vel haereditas esse, vel Deum haereditate possidere non potest. Quod tamen non de Clericis omnibus dicimus, sed de his specialiter, qui canonico censentur nomine, et vivunt in congregatione. At the same time, he censured the regula Aquisgranensis (Part 1, § 8, note 6), which still allowed canons to retain their private possessions, and the canons who availed themselves of it. Thus a regula S. Augustini began to be spoken of, till at length one was actually composed from those sermons (see in Luc. Holstenii codex regularum monasticarum et canonicarum ed. Marian. Brockie, ii. 120). Bernoldus ad ann. 1091 (in Pertz, vii. 452) is the first to mention three coenobia clericorum juxta regulam s. Augustini communiter viventium, founded by Altmann, bishop of Passau, and ad ann. 1095 (p. 463), another, established by Lutolphus, bishop of Toul, the foundation-deed of this, dated vi. Idus Oct. 1091, is in Gallia christ. xiii. app. p. 472. There is a severer censure of the reg. Aquisgr. in Gerhohus de corrupto Ecclesiae statu, lib. v. in Baluz. miscell. v. 180. E. g. p. 198: illa-aulica

even in conformity with one of the stricter rules (the so-called regula S. Augustini); but the new regulations were soon relaxed.2 The celibacy of the clergy, which was now constituted as an ecclesiastical ordinance of more general application than before,3 could not be fully established in several countries until the thirteenth century. But it introduced in its train a greater increase regula, de aula Regis egressa, multa in suo contextu habet sana Patrum documenta;sed illis praemissis adulterina quaedam sunt admixta, quibus priorum puritas ita est infecta et turbata per nescio quos aulicos dictatores, veris falsa, bonis mala permiscentes, etc., p. 199: contra quam [regulam] nunc tantopere disputare illud cogit, quod etiam quidam canonici vitam communem secundum regulam b. Augustini professi-eandem sic acceptant, ut in conventibus suis eam recitari faciant quasi authenticam et nullius erroris permixtione infectam, etc.-Quae namque ratio est, ut majores et plures clericorum congregationes regulam profiteantur aulicam nulla sedis apostolicae auctoritate canonizatam, etc.? The canons who lived after the rule of St. Augustine now styled themselves canonici regulares, the others can. seculares. Compare on both Jacobi a Vitriaco hist. occidentalis, c. 21 and c. 30.

* Probst turnarii Ecclesiarum Germ. historia in Ad concordata nationis Germ. integra documentorum fasc. iv. (Francof. et Lips. 1777. 8), p. 245 ss. Planck, IV. ii. 570. As a relic of this, a custom prevailed in several places that the members of the chapter, on high feast days, or during Lent, should take their meals together. Hurter's Innoc. III. iii. 352.

For instance, 1, ordines majores became an impedimentum matrimonii dirimens. First Conc. Lateran. I. ann. 1123, can. 21. Presbyteris, diaconibus, subdiaconibus concubinas habere, seu matrimonia contrahere penitus interdicimus: contracta quoque matrimonia ab hujusmodi personis disjungi―judicamus. Conc. Lateran. II. ann. 1139, can. 7: Hujus. modi namque copulationem, quam contra ecclesiasticam rationem constat esse contractam, matrimonium non esse censemus. Cf Greg Decretall. lib. iv. tit. 6. Qui clerici vel voventes matrimonium contrahere possunt. Thomassin P. i. lib. ii. c. 66, § 4.—2. After that a vain attempt had been made, in the eleventh century, absolutely to forbid marriage in the case of the clerici minorum ordinum also (Thomassin. 1. c. § 1 ss.), Alexander III first decreed in respect to them, Decr. Greg lib. in tit. i.; de clericis conjugatis, c. 1. Si qui clericorum infra subdiaconatum acceperint uxores, ipsos ad relinquenda beneficia ecclesiastica et retinendas uxores districtione ecclesiastica compellatis. Compare the whole Titulus. Thomas Aquin. below, note 7. Thomassin. I. c. c. 66.

1. In Spain, cf. Paschalis II. epist. ad Didacum Epist. Compostell. ann. 1103 (Mansi xx. 1001): Si qui [presbyteri et diaconi] sane ante romanae legis susceptionem (see ◊ 62, not. 1) secundum communem patriae consuetudinem conjugia contraxerunt, natos ex eis filios neque a saeculari, neque a dignitate ecclesiastica repellimus. —2. In England the marriage of priests, tolerated by Lanfranc (see above, § 47, note 45), was strongly attacked by Anselm (archbishop of Canterbury, 1093-1109), especially in the Concill. Londinn. ann. 1102 and 1108, but was not yet eradicated. In the year 1125 the Papal Cardinal Legate Johannes Cremensis (concerning him, compare above. § 62, note 16) held another Synod in London on the subject. But about him Henricus Huntingdoniensis (about 1150) histor. lib. vii.: Cum in concilio severissime de uxoribus sacerdotum tractasset, dicens summum scelus esse a latere meretricis ad corpus Christi conficiendum surgere: cum ea. dem die corpus Christi confecisset, cum meretrice post vesperam interceptus est. Res apertissima negari non potuit, celari non decuit. Summus honor ubique habitus in summum dedecus versus est. Repedavit igitur in sua Dei judicio confusus et inglorius. These decrees were indeed established by law, to all appearance, in the Synods of London in the year 1127 and 1129: but Chron. Saxon. vetus ad ann. 1129 (in Wilkins Conc. M. Brit. i. 411): nec ullam vim habuerunt omnia illa decreta. cuncti retinuerunt suas uxores Regis venia, sicut antea fecerant: For instance (Matth. Paris, ann. 1129), the bishops con

of the most shameful licentiousness,5 from the readiness of the cesserunt Regi justitiam de focariis sacerdotum, quae res postea cum summo dedecore terminabatur accepit enim Rex pecuniam infinitam de Presbyteris pro suis focariis redimendis. Noteworthy is the condemnatory way in which the English historians, Henricus Huntingd., Mathew Paris, and Thomas of Walsingham (about 1440) speak of the celibacy of priests under Gregor. VII. and Anselm. Also in Normandy the marriage of priests was openly maintained in the beginning of the 12th century (Acta SS. April. ii. 234).-3. Celibacy was not established in the northern kingdoms till the thirteenth century. With reference to Sweden the words of Innocent. lib. xvi. ep. 118, ad Archiep. Lundensem are remarkable postulasti per sedem apostolicam edoceri,-utrum sacerdotes Suethiae in publicis debeas tolerare conjugiis, qui super hoc se asserunt cujusdam summi Pontificis privilegio communitos.-Non possumus dare responsum, nisi viderimus privilegium quod praetendunt. Cf. lib. x. ep. 147. In Denmark, where even the peasants of Schonen, in an insurrection in 1180, among other demands required the restoration of marriage of priests (according to Hamsfort in Langebeck scr. rerum Danic. i. 280: ne uti hactenus per libidinem filiabus et conjugibus abuterentur illorum. Compare Saxo, lib. xv. 366. Münter's Kirchengesch. v. Danemark u. Norwegen, II. i. 345), not till the year 1222, after many efforts of a legate, was a decisive law issued by the synod at Schleswig in favor of celibacy of priests (Pontoppidan's Annales Eccles Dan. i. 637. Münter, II. ii. 1033). The same law likewise was first established in Norway and Iceland in the course of the thirteenth century (Munter, II. ii. 1045) in Sweden by the Cardinal Legate, William, bishop of Sabina, in the Synod at Skenninge, 1248 (Münter, II. ii. 1051: the Constitutiones Schenningenses, which are missing in the collections of Councils, are to be found in Münter's Magazın f. Kirchengesch. u. Kirchenrecht d. Nordens, i. 192, printed according to the original in J. G. Liljengren diplomatarium Suecanum, Holm. 1829. 4. 1. 330).—4. In Hungary, Syn. Szabolchensis (at Szaboles), ann. 1092, c. 3: Presbyteris autem, qui prima et legitima duxere conjugia, indulgentia ad tempus datur propter vinculum pacis et unitatem Spiritus Sancti, quousque nobis in hec domini Apostolici paternitas consilietur. Syn. Strigoniensis (at Gran.), ann. 1114, can. 31: Presbyteris uxores, quas legitimis ordinibus acceperint, moderatius habendas, praevisa fragilitate, indulsimus (see this canon, which is left out in Mansi xxi. 105, in Peterffy Conc. Hungar. i. 57). It was first by means of the Decreta Hungarorum, quae de Guidone Cardinale susceperunt, ann. 1267 (Mansi xxii. 1183), that the Romish principles got the upper hand (Engel's Gesch. v. Ungarn, 388).-5. In Silesia, where Francis, bishop of Breslau († 1194), wrote a letter, unfortunately no longer extant, de clericorum et laicorum matrimoniis (s. Hanke de Silesiis indigenis eruditis, p 14. See J. Ehrhard on the corrupt state of religion before the Refor mation, Breslau, 1778. 4), in Bohemia, where even the Archbishop of Prague was accused by Innocent III., quod uxorem evidenter haberet, de qua filios generavit (Innoc. lib. v. epist. 28. J. Dobrowsky narratio hist. de sacerdotum in Bohemia coelibatu, Prag. 1787, abridged in Illgen's Zeitschr f. d. hist. Theol. 1844. iv. 113), and in Poland, the marriage of priests was first discontinued in the middle of the thirteenth century (see Worbs in Staudlin's u. Tzschirner's Archiv. f. Kirchengeschichte, III. iii. 719. Raumer, Gesch. d. Hohenst. vi. 236).-6. In Germany marriage of priests seems to have been retained longest at Liege, which is easily explained from its earlier history (see ◊ 49, notes 9 and 12). Comp. Antigraphum Petri, written by a priest of Liege between the years 1153 and 1173 (MS. in Paris, see Hist. lit. de la France, xiv. 406): Ipsos (Presbyteros) qui se legitimas posse habere asserunt uxores, interroga, quare eis in extremis renuncient, quare quidam totiens mutent? Si enim legitimum est matrimonium, mutare non licet, vel renunciare eis non est necesse si illicitum, fornicatio est. Still, about the year 1220, the cathedral clergy married not far from Liege, cum solemnitate, quae solet in matrimoniis observari (Raumer, vi. 236, from the Regest. Honorii III.), and in Zurich, about the year 1230, married clergy were to be found (J. J. Hottinger's Helvetische Kirchengeschichte, ii. 30). J. Anton Theiner und Augustin Theiner, die Einführung der erzwungenen Ehelosigkeit bei den christl. Geistlichen und ihre Folgen. Altenburg. 1828, II. i. 269. ⚫ Comp. Schrockh, xxvii. 184.

Especially the long list of decrees of Councils against

bishops to overlook it. Besides that unchastity, which already made many thoughtful minds mistrustful of celibacy,' utter worldthe concubinae, focariae, and pedissequae of the clergy, s. 206. Raumer, vi. 235. On the unnatural excesses of the clergy, see Hüllinann's Stadtewesen des Mittelalters, iv. 261.

Rupertus Tuitiensis comm. in Apocalypsin, c. 2, lib. ii. (Opp. ed. Mogunt. II. 490): turba plebeja rectores Ecclesiae clamoribus suis coarguit atque objurgat eo quod talis pestilentia, tanta in sacros ordines macula ex ipsorum acciderit avaritia. Often fines were imposed on priests who had wives or concubines. For which reason many bishops tolerated such cases willingly, as the Conc. Lateran. IV. ann. 1215, can. 14, and the Constitutt. Edmundi Archiep. Cantuar. ann. 1236, accuse them of doing, maxime obtentu pecuniae vel alterius commodi temporalis. Moreover, the number of the guilty necessitated forbearance. Thus the verdict was given against the immoral clergy (Dist. lxxxi. c. 6), ut a sacerdotali removeantur officio, but the gloss to this says, communiter autem dicitur, quod pro simplici fornicatione quis deponi non debet, cum pauci sine illo vitio inveniantur.

So early as the year 1120, there was written, Rotomagensis Anonymi tract. an liceat Sacerdotibus inire matrimonia, in Brown appendix ad fascic. rerum expet. et fugiend. p. 166 (comp. Theiner, II. i. 323), where it was first shown that, traditio hominis est, et non Dei, non Apostolorum institutio: Then, hoc mandatum naturalem ordinem conservari vetat, perturbari jubet, et ideo contra aeternam legem fit, et peccatum est: peccant enim, qui mandatum tale instituunt, quo naturalis ordo destruitur; to conclude, fit contra voluntatem et praedestinationem illius, qui quae futura sint fecit. From the same time, perhaps, may the so-called epist. secunda Volusiani Episc. Carthaginensis in John Fox's Acts and Monuments of Martyrs, Lond., 1684. ii. 393 (epist. i. is the epist. Udalrici ad Nicolaum, see Part 1, § 34, note 9), derive its origin; it is a defense of the married clergy, and written in their name. E. g. Inhibito naturalis unius mulieris conjugio surrepit non naturalis, sed contra naturam execrabilis sodomitica fornicatio, surrepit illicita et damnabilis, non legitima sed contra legem alienae uxoris contaminatio, necnon etiam et meretricabilis nefanda pollutio, quin etiam abominabilis omnibus parentalis incestatio vel aliarum immunditiarum vel libidinum a Diabolo inventarum id genus, in quibus humana infirmitas periclitatur. Quodsi mali sumus, nobis ipsis sumus, et plus nobis quam aliis nocemus : et quos fortasse malos conspicitis, quid boni interius habeant ignoratis. Sunt enim plerique, quos de incontinentia judicatis, qui continentiores sunt, quam illi, quos de continentia glorificatis. Of Petrus Comestor, chancellor of the University of Paris, about the year 1170, his pupil Gyraldus Cambrensis records (ex Ms. in Cave scriptt. eccl. hist. lit. ii. 239) Hoc autem Magistrum Petrum Manducatorem in audientia totius scholae suae, quae tot et tantis viris literatissimis referta fuit, dicentem audivi, quod nunquam hostis ille antiquus in aliquo articulo adeo Ecclesiam Dei circumvenit, sicut in voti illius (sc. continentiae sacerdotum) emissione.-Thomas Aquinas (in Summa, quae incipit Commiserationes Domini, etc., cap. 165, in Flacii catal. test. verit. no. 262): Dicit Canon, quod, si clerici in minoribus ordinibus constituti se continere non possunt, et matrimonium contrahere voluerint, debet eis assignari sustentatio sua de beneficiis suis extra Ecclesiam, ita quod de caetero non ministrent in Ecclesia in ordine suo, sed censuram habeant, et libertate gaudeant clericorum. Contra hanc canonicam institutionem hodie obtinet consuetudo, quod statim ex quo acolytus contrahit matrimonium, omni ecclesiastico beneficio privatur (see above, note 3), cum canon, ut dictum est, praecipiat, de beneficio sustentari. Si autem acolytus in secreta confessione ad discretum Sacerdotem veniat, et se nullo modo continere posse dicat, non multum peccat Sacerdos, dando ei consilium, ut cum aliqua occulte matrimonium contrahat, et occulte sui Episcopi oculos fallat. Minus enim credimus esse peccatum, beneficium cum occulto conjugio retinere, quam fornicariam contra divinam prohibitionem habere. Si vero postea ad sacros ordines a suis Praelatis cogatur accedere, credimus minus esse peccatum uxore uti, quam cum alia fornicari, si ex toto noluerit continere. Gulielmus Durantis tract. de modo gener. conc. celebr. (sce above, ◊ 62, note 28). P. ii. rubr. 46: Cum paene in omnibus conciliis et a plerisque Ro manis Pontificibus super cohibenda et punienda clericorum incontinentia, et eorum hones.