press for a Council,39 Benedict XI. found himself so much the more induced to repeal gradually all the decrees issued by his predecessor against France.40

But after the death of Benedict XI. († 7th July, 1304) the French party among the Cardinals, after a long conclave, contrived to manage that Bertrand d'Agoust, archbishop of Bordeaux, who had already delivered himself over into Philip's hands by a secret compact, should ascend the Papal throne as Clement V. (5th June, 1305). Thus the Papal See fell under the influence of France, and began a fresh career.

41

it, quod per eosdem passus et gradus, per quos Ecclesia ascenderat in temporalibus, descenderet usque ad extremam paupertatem Sylvestri, et quod ad hoc adduxit validas rationes et auctoritates divinae Scripturae.

39 Compare la supplication du pueuble de France au Roy contre le Pape Boniface le VIII., not long after the death of the last mentioned (Bulaeus, iv. 15. Du Puy, p. 214) : A vous, tres-noble Prince, nostre Sire par la grace de Dieu Roy de France, supplie et requiert le peuple de vostre Royaume, pourcequ'il li appartient, que ce soit fait, que vous gardiez la souveraine franchise de vostre Royaume, qui est telle, que vous ne recognessiez de vostre Temporel Souverain en terre hors que Dieu, et que vous faciez declairer, si que tout le monde le sache, que le Pape Boniface erra manifestement et fist peché mortel notoirement, en vous mandant par lettres Bullées, qu'il estoit vostre Souverain de vostre Temporel, et que vous ne pouvez prevendes donner, ne les fruits des Eglises cathedrales vacans retenir, et que tous ceux qui croyent le contraire, il tenoit pour Hereges. Item, que vous faciez declairer, que l'en doit tenir ledit Pape pour Herege,-pourcequ'il ne veut cette erreur rapeller, ayant dit moult de fois, qu'en cette creance vivroit et mourroit, et que ja pour nul homme ce ne rappelleroit, etc. An interesting historical proof that the priesthood and temporal sovereignty have always been distinct. Ce fut grand abomination a ouir, que ce Boniface, pourceque Dieu dist à saint Pierre "ce que tu lieras en terra, sera lié au ciel,” cette parole de spiritualement, entendit mallement, comme Boul. gare, quant au Temporel, se il mit un homme en prison temporelle, le mist pour ce Dieu en prison en ciel. At the end: pourquoi il pert raisonnablement, qu'il fut Herege, et en cette herreur mourut, et s'aucun vouloit ledit Boniface excuser de tout cest esclandre, etc. -Parquoy que aucun autre ne preigne exemple à faire ainsi, et pourceque la peine de luy face paour aux autres.-vous noble Roy sur tous autres Princes defenseur de la foy, destructeur des Boulgres, pouez et devez et estes tenus requerrer et procurer, que ledit Boniface soit tenus et jugiez pour Herege, et punis en la maniere, que l'en le pourra et devra, et doit faire apres sa mort: si que vostre souveraine franchise soit gardé, etc. 40 See all the Bulls issued with this view in Du Puy preuves, p. 207.

41 Compare the account given by the writers of the day Ferreti Vicentini (about 1328) hist. suorum temporum in Murator scriptt. rer. It ix. 1014, and Giovanni Villani († 1348) histor. Fiorentine lib. viii. c. 80 in Muratori xiii. 415 ss.

1. ECCLESIASTICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PAPACY.

§ 60.

PAPAL JURISPRUDENCE.

Spittler's Werke, herausg. v. K..Wachter, i. 305 (Fragm. aus einem zweiten Theile d. Gesch. d. kan. Rechts). J. J. Lang, Gesch. u. Institutionen des Kirchenrechts, i. 215. Eichhorn's Kirchenrecht, i. 322. Dess. deutsche Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte (4te Aufl.), ii. 247. Richter's Kirchenrecht (2te Aufl.), s. 135. [Sugenheim, Ge. schichte d. Kirchenstaats, 1854. Phillips, Kirchenrecht, 3te Auflage, 1855; cf. Niedner, Kirchengesch.].

The old canon Law was quite displaced at this period by the new Papal rights built upon the foundation of the Pseudo-Isidorian principles. After that the Decretals had been intermingled with the Canons by several systematical compilers,' and thereby acquired equal authority with them on all points; the Benedictine2 Gratian at Bologna, the abode of legal knowledge at that time, essayed a concordantia discordantium Canonun libb. iii.3 (1150),* which naturally enough decided throughout in favor of the new Papal Law. By means of this work, the canon Law, together

On these see Ballerini de ant. collect. canonum P. iv. c. 13 ss. (in Gallandii sylloge ed. Magont, i. 640), v. Savigny's Gesch. d. rom. Rechts im Mittelalter, 274. Aem. L. Richter's Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Quellen des can. Rechts. Leipzig, 1834. H. Wasserschleben's Beitrage zur Gesch. d. vorgratianischen Kirchenrechtsquellen, Leipz. 1839. Among them Burchard, bishop of Worms († 1025), is remarkable for his Decretorum libb. xx., and Ivo, bishop of Chartres († 1115), for his Decretum, and the Pannormia, an abridgment from it (against Theiner über Ivo's vermeintl. Decret. Mainz, 1832, according to whom the Decretum is the work of some later author, see Wasserschleben, s. 47). 2 According to Spittler's Beitrage, s. 4. a Camaldulensian.

Commonly called the Decretum Gratiani, see Spittler, s. 12.

According to the Glossa ad c. ii. qu. 6 c. 31 (which is even found in one of the most ancient Glossers, Hugo, bishop of Ferrara († 1210), see Gerhardi Groot sermo in Kist en Royaards Archief voor kerkelijke Geschiedenis, ii. 312): anno Dom. MCL. ut ex Chronicis patet.

For the history of the Decretal, see J. H. Boehmeri diss. de varia decreti Gratiani fortuna, published in his Corpus jur. can. Tom. i. (Spittler's) Beiträge zur Geschichte Gratians und seines Decrets, in Abele's Magazin für Kirchenrecht und Kirchengesch. St. i. (Leipz. 1778. 8.) s. 1. ff. (Sarti) de claris Archigymnasii Bononiensis professoribus (ed. M. Fattorini. PP. ii. Bonon. 1769 and 72) P. i. p. 247 ss.-On Gratian's mistakes, false and mutilated quotations, reception of forged documents, see Antonii Augustini (Archbishop of Tarragona) de emendatione Gratiani dialogorum libb. ii. Tarrac, 1587. 4. (cum not. St. Baluzii et G. Mastricht, in Gallandii de vetustis canonum collectionibus dissertationum sylloge, ed. Magont. ii. 185). The principal work is C. S. Berardi Gratiani ca. nones genuini ab apocryphis discreti, corrupti ad emendatiorum codicum fidem exacti, etc. Taurini. Tomi iv. 1752. 4. Jod. le Platt diss. de spuriis in Gratiano canonibus (in Gallandii syll. ii. 801). J. A. de Riegger diss. de Gratiani collectione canonum, illiusque

7

with the Roman Law, became the subject of zealous and scientific study at Bologna and Paris, and Gratian as well as Justinian had numerous commentators. But by this means the contradictions of the old and new Law," which had been but imperfectly adjusted by Gratian, were brought out in such numbers that the Popes were incessantly forced to fresh decisions. Thus countless decretals appeared, whose daily increasing mass threatened to cause the greatest perplexity," till Gregory IX. caused a system

methodo et mendis (in Oblectam. hist. et jur. eccl. i. 1). Richter de emendatoribus Gratiani diss. Lips. 1835.

• Decretistae and Doctores decretorum in opposition to Legistae and Doctores legum. The confirmation of the Decretal by Eugene III. 1152, is most likely fictitious, Spittler, s. 14 ff. Eichhorn's Rechtsgesch. ii. 255. But even Popes appeal to it, Boehmer diss. p. xviii.

"Concerning them Guido Pancirolus de claris legum interpretibus (Lips. 1721. 4.) lib. iii. c. 6. Lang, Gesch. u. Instit. des Kirchenrechts, 1. 259. The most remarkable of these is John Semeca, provost of Halberstadt (Magister Teutonicus † 1245, see Niemann's Gesch. v. Halberstadt, 1. 343); from his glosses arose the glossa ordinaria, which received its last shape from Barthol. von Brixen († 1258).

Hence the decree of a Cistercian Chapter in the year 1188 (Martene thesaur. anecdot. iv. 1263) Liber, qui dicitur canonum, sive decreta Gratiani, apud eos qui habuerint secretius custodiantur, ut cum opus fuerit preferantur. In communi armario non resideant propter varios, qui inde provenire possent, errores.

Most of them were issued by Alexander III. and Innocent III.

10 On the collections made before Gregory IX. see Henricus Card. Ostiensis (about 1250) summa super titulis decretalium, p. 4: tam ex dictis ss. Patrum quam legibus fuit liber Decretorum compositus.-Postea vero cum multae decretales epistolae extra corpus Decretorum vagarentur, Mag. Bernardus, Papiensis Praepositus, primum compilationem composuit. Sed et tempore procedente Mag. Guilebertus suam effecit. Aliam etiam et Alanus. Deinde Mag. Bernardus Compostellanus, in Curia Romana moram faciens, ex registro domini Innocentii III. quandam compilationem extraxit, quae Romana appellata fuit. Sed quia ibi erant quaedam decretales, quas non admittebat Romana Curia, ideo idem Innocentius per manum Petri Beneventani compilationem edidit, quae tertia vocabatur. Qua recepta Mag. Johannes Walensis de duabus dictis compilationibus Guileberti et Alani unam compilavit, quae vocabatur secunda. Postmodum concilio generali per eundem Innocentium celebrato, tam de constitutionibus generalis concilii quam aliis decretalibus ipsius Innocentii compilatio quarta processit. Postremo quinta compilatio per Honorium III. facta fuit. Et si ea, quae praemisi, bene attenderis, octo compilationes poteris invenire. Ideo bene congruebat, ut Gregorius IX. faceret opus nonum. Boehmer de decretalium pontificum Romanorum variis collectionibus et fortuna prefixed to his Cor. pus juris can. II. xxiii. A. Theineri comm. de Romanorum Pontificum epistolarum decretalium antiquis collectionibus et de Gregorii IX., P. M. decretalium codice. Lips. 1829. 4. Recherches sur plusieurs collections inédites de décrétales du moyen áge par Aug. Theiner. Paris, 1832. 8. Lang, s. 228. Eichhorn's Kirchenrecht, i. 336. His, deutsche Rechtsgesch. ii. 259. Richter's Kirchenr. s. 141. Besides the incompleteness which was soon continually recurring, we have to remark the wholesale falsifying and forgery of Decretals, of which Innocent III. lib. i. epist. 349, gives nine sorts (comp. Decret. Gregor. lib. V. tit. 20, de crimine falsi, and lib. ii. tit. 22, de fide instrumentorum). Thence the complaints of Stephen, bishop of Tournay (from 1192 to 1200), epist. 251, ad Coeles. tinum P. III. (in ed. Car. du Molinet, Paris, 1679, p. 366, more correctly in the Notices et extraits des mss. de la biblioth. du Roi X. ii. 101): si ventum fuerit ad judicia, quao

atical code, chiefly drawn from the Papal Decretals (Decretalium Gregorii P. IX. libb. v. 1234)," to be prepared by the Dominican Raymund de Pennaforti; which even in this period of time (1298) was increased under Boniface VIII. by a liber sextus gathered from the later decretals, divided likewise into five books.12 When the Decretals began to be unfolded into a complete legislative system, professorial chairs were appropriated to them at the Universities,13 by means of which the Popes at once acquired a convenient method for the speedy and universal publication of the new laws as they appeared.14 On the other hand, Gratian's Decretal was continually more and more neglected, and together with the use of it disappeared every trace of the ancient canon law.15

19

§ 61.

EXTENSION OF THE IDEA OF THE PAPACY.

The Pseudo-Isidorian Idea that the Pope was the Episcopus universalis of the Church,' was now developed by the ambition of the Popes and the cringing flattery of their creatures, favored by the state of politics and the ignorance of the age,2 to a degree jure canonico sunt tractanda,-profertur a venditoribus inextricabilis silva decretalium epistolarum, quasi sub nomine sanctae recordationis Alexandri Papae et antiquiores sacri canones abjiciuntur, respuuntur, exspuuntur. Hoc involucro prolato in medium ea, quae in conciliis ss. PP. salubriter instituta sunt, nec formam conciliis, nec finem negotiis imponunt, praevalentibus epistolis, quas forsitan advocati conductitii sub nomine Romanorum Pontificum in apothecis sive cubiculis suis confingunt et conscribunt. Novum volumen ex eis compactum et in scholis solemniter legitur, et in foro venaliter exponitur, applaudente coetu notariorum, qui in conscribendis suspectis opusculis et laborem suum gaudent imminui, et mercedem augeri.

11 Henricus Ostiensis, I. c.

Dictus dominus Gregorius tantam confusionem et prolixitatem removere cupiens, ex dictis decretis, decretalibus epistolis, et dictis ss. Patrum, ac legibus antiquis, compilationibus decretalium abrogatis voluit necessaria et utilia redigere in hunc librum.

12 Eichhorn's Kirchenr. i. 345.

Richter's Kirchenr. s. 143.

13 Decretalistae or Decretistae. The Decretales Gregor, are indebted for their glossa ordinaria to Bernard de Botono from Parma, Canon at Bologna († 1266), see Lang s. 262; the liber sextus to John Andreae, Decretalist in Bologna († 1348, see Savigny, vi. 87).

14 Compare the brief with which Innocent IV. dispatches the decrees, Conc. Lugdun. ann. 1245, universitati magistrorum et scholarium Bononiae commorantibus (Mansi xxiii. 651), quatenus eis, quas sub bulla nostra vobis transmittimus, uti velitis amodo tam in judiciis, quam in scholis, ipsas sub suis titulis, prout super qualibet earum exprimitur, inseri facientes.

15 Rogeri Bacon opus majus (about 1266) ed. Jebh. p. 250. Gratianus multa scripsit jura, quae nunc abrogata sunt, sententia saniore praevalente.

See Part 1, § 20, note 8. Above, § 47, note 3.

Hence it was that the mass of forged evidence, which may be found in Thomas

never anticipated in former times. Bishops were degraded to be merely vicars of the Pope,3 who had advanced since the time of Aquinas, especially in his opusc. contra errores Graecorum, could be attributed to the ancient Greek Fathers. Thus Cyril of Alexandria, in libro thesaurorum, is represented as having said, among other sayings of the same kind (see Thomas in sent. lib. iv. dist. 24. qu. 3. art. 2): ut membra maneamus in capite nostro, apostolico throno Romanorum Pontificum, a quo nostrum est quaerere, quid credere, et quid tenere debeamus, ipsum venerantes. ipsum rogantes prae omnibus: quoniam ipsius solius est reprehendere, corrigere, statuere, disponere, solvere, et ligare loco illius, qui ipsum aedificavit : et nulli alii quod suum est plenum, sed ipsi soli dedit, cui omnes jure divino caput inclinant, et primates mundi, tanquam ipsi Domino Jesu Christo, obediunt. Thomas, in his opusc. adv. Graecos, quotes as a canon of the Council of Chalcedon: Si quis Episcopus praedicatur infamis, liberam habeat sententiam appellandi ad beatissimum Episcopum antiquae Romae : quia habemus Petrum patrem refugii, et ipsi soli libera potestate loco Dei sit jus discernendi Episcopi criminati infamiam secundum claves a Domino sibi datas. - Et omnia ab eo diffinita teneantur tamquam a Vicario apostolici throni. See these passages gathered and criticised in J. Launoji lib. i. epist. 1-3 (Opp. V. i. 1). Other passages were corrupted. S. Augustini de doct. Christ. lib. ii. cap. 8, § 12, reads thus in Gratian P. i. dist. 19, c. 6: In canonicis scripturis Ecclesiarum catholicarum quamplurimum divinarum Scripturarum solertissimus indagator auctoritatem sequatur, inter quas sane illae sint, quas apostolica sedes habere, et ab ea alii meruerunt accipere epistolas. The genuine text is: In canonicis autem scripturis Ecclesiarum catholicarum quamplurimum auctoritatem sequatur inter quas sane illae sunt, quae apostolicas sedes habere, et epistolas accipere

meruerunt.

3 Bernoldi Constant. apologeticus pro decretis Gregorii VII. (s. § 47, not. 40) cap. 23: quilibet Episcopus nec super gregem sibi commissum tantam potestatem habet, quantam Praesul apostolicus, qui, licet curam suam in singulos Episcopos diviserit, nullo modo tamen seipsum sua universali et principali potestate privavit: sicut nec Rex suam rega. lem potentiam diminuit, licet regnum suum in diversos duces, comites sive judices diviserit. Cap. 24: His autem rationibus et hoc declaratur, quod cujusvis Episcopi parochianus potius domno Apostolico, quam proprio Episcopo obedire debet. Innocent II. in his opening speech to the second Lateran Council, ann. 1139 (ex chron. Mauriniacensi in Mansi xxi. 534): Nostis, quia Roma caput est mundi, et quia a Romani Pontificis licentia ecclesiastici honoris celsitudo quasi feudalis juris consuetudine suscipitur, et sine ejus permissione legaliter non tenetur. Innocent III. lib. i. epist. 350: Sic apostolica sedes inter fratres et Coëpiscopos nostros pastoralis dispensavit oneris gravitatem, sic eos in creditae sibi solicitudinis partem assumpsit, nt nihil sibi subtraheret de plenitudine potestatis, quo minus de singulis causis ecclesiasticis inquirere possit, et cum voluerit judicare. Ibid. epist. 495 ad Archiepisc. et Decanum Senonensem and epist. 496 ad Pictav. et Cenoman. Episcopos: Potestatis apostolicae plenitudo longe lateque diffusa, licet ubique praesens potentialiter habeatur, tamen quia ea, quae ad tantum officium pertinent, per se, prout singulis expediret, non valet praesentialiter exercere, tam vos quam alios ministros Ecclesiarum in partem solicitudinis advocavit, ut sic tanti onus officii per subsidiarias actiones commodius supportetur. For this reason Innocent III. in Decretal. Gregor. lib. iii. tit. 8, cap. 5, calls the sphere of the bishops commissam nostrae solicitudinis partem. Thomas Aquinas, in Sent. lib. ii. dist. 44, qu. 2, in fine: Potestas superior et inferior dupliciter possunt se habere. Aut ita, quod inferior potestas ex toto oriatur a superiori; et tunc tota virtus inferioris fundatur supra virtutem superioris, et tunc simpliciter et in omnibus est magis obediendum potestati superiori, quam inferiori;—et sic se habet potestas Dei ad omnem potestatem creatam; sic etiam se habet potestas Imperatoris ad potestatem proconsulis : sic etiam se habet potestas Papae ad omnem spirituaiem potestatem in Ecclesia: quia ab ipso Papa gradus dignitatum diversi in Ecclesia et disponuntur et ordinantur: unde ejus potestas est quoddam Ecclesiae fundamentum, ut patet Matth. xvi. Et ideo in omnibus magis tenemur obedire Papae quam Episcopis, vel Ar