Cardinal Caraffa was chosen to succeed Marcellus, and assumed the name of Paul IV. This election was viewed by many with great alarm. Caraffa had always affected severe sanctity, and was equally noted for the austerity of his manners and his ferocious disposition. He had founded the order of the Theatine monks, and was supposed to be the sworn enemy of all indulgence and display; hence the creatures of the court expected nothing less than a sweeping reformation. But no sooner had he ascended the pontifical chair than he laid aside his austerity and self-denial. When he was asked how he wished to be served, he replied, "splendidly, as becomes a great prince." His installation was unusually magnificent, and at all public solemnities he chose to appear with more than ordinary pomp. 35

By the peace of Passau, confirmed by the decree of the diet of Augsburg, 36 the Protestants of Germany were not only secured from molestation, but also acquired the complete recognition and establishment of their religious freedom. The struggles of the preceding twenty-five years had issued in the erection of this bulwark of their liberties, which, though it was not raised without great sacrifices, and the loss of much precious blood, was worth all that it cost, and happily proved firm and secure. It must be confessed, indeed, that the edict was far from being perfect, since it included in its provisions those Protestants only who followed the confession of Augsburg, and it may be doubted whether either party acted from enlightened views of the rights of conscience. But a great point is gained when opposing sects agree to let each other alone, whatever may be the motives by which they are influenced. Almost three centuries have passed away since this celebrated decree was published, and still there are those to be found who claim the privilege of dictation to their brethren, and deny to others the liberty which they demand for themselves. It will be a happy time for the Christian church when the apostolic law shall be universally obeyed"Let every man be fully persuaded in his own mind." The pontiff was excessively irritated at the result of 36 A. D. 1552-1555.

35 Sarpi, ut sup. s. 15.

the diet of Augsburg and its "pernicious" decree, as he chose to call it. 37 He expressed his dissatisfaction in the most violent manner, and even threatened the emperor with excommunication, unless the decree were repealed. When the imperial ambassador urged the power of the Protestants, his master's late defeat, and the solemn oaths by which he was bound to fulfil his engagements, the Pope replied that he would release him from those oaths, and command him not to keep them! All this was in perfect accordance with his known character. Few Popes have had such high conceptions of the dignity of their office as Paul IV. He advanced the most extravagant pretensions, and supported them with a violence and haughtiness of demeanour that have been seldom equalled. He claimed absolute domí nation over all orders of men, civil and ecclesiastical, and the right to dispose of kingdoms. No prince, he said, should be his companion; he would be above them all, and (stamping on the floor, and thus suiting the action to the word,) he would have them all under his feet. 38

Paul IV. professed great concern for reform, and within a few months after his election had established a numerous congregation, consisting of twenty-four cardinals, forty-five bishops, and other learned men, amounting in the whole to a hundred and fifty persons. He charged them to inquire into the abuses connected with simony, and sent notifications of his proceedings to all the sovereigns of Europe, that they might procure the assistance and advice of the universities in an affair of so great importance. Not indeed, he said, that he himself needed instruction, for he understood all the commands of Christ; but in a matter of universal concern, he was desirous that it should be seen that he did not take every thing upon himself. To this he added, that when he had reformed his own court, and thus prevented the application of the proverb, "Physician, heal thyself," he intended to show that simony prevailed also in the courts of princes, which he would take care should be reformed in their turn. Several meetings of the congregation were held, and various opinions expressed : 38 Sarpi, lib. v. s. 17.

37 Le Plat, iv. p. 569.

some thought that money might be taken for the use of the church, provided that it was not received as the price of an office, but from some other motive; others judged it unlawful under any pretence whatever. The Pope took the severest view of the subject, and designed to publish a bull declaring it utterly unlawful to ask or receive a price, a present, or a voluntary alms, for any spiritual favour. But so many difficulties and delays intervened, that his resolution was never carried into effect. 9

Some of the cardinals having ventured to suggest that these matters should be discussed in a general council, he flew into a violent passion, and said that he needed no council, for he was above them all. It was observed, that though a council added nothing to the authority of the Pope, it was useful in devising the means of executing his designs. Whereupon he replied, that if there must be a council, he would have it at Rome, and no where else; and that he would suffer none but bishops to attend it. He had always objected to Trent, because it was situated in the midst of heretics: it was a foolish thing to send some threescore bishops and forty divines among the mountains, and to suppose that they were better able to reform the world than the vicar of Jesus Christ, aided by all his cardinals, and prelates, and divines, the most learned in Christendom, who were always to be found at Rome in greater numbers than had ever assembled at Trent. He would have another council in the Lateran, and he enjoined the ambassadors at his court to send information of his purpose to their respective masters. How far he was sincere may be justly questioned; for while he avowed this intention in public, he was engaged in intrigues that involved almost all Europe in war, and entirely precluded the possibility of the projected assembly.4°

The resignation of the empire by Charles, in favour of his brother Ferdinand, afforded another opportunity for the display of the insufferable pride and haughty pretensions of the pontiff. A meeting of the electors was held at Frankfort, Feb. 24, 1558, when the instrument of

39 Sarpi, ut sup, s. 22.

40 Sarpi, ut sup. s. 23. Pallav. l. xiii. c. 17,

Charles's abdication was laid before them.

Ferdinand was immediately chosen as his successor, and shortly after solemnly installed into office. But the Pope refused to admit the validity of the election, and never acknowledged the new emperor. He pretended that the empire ought to have been resigned into his hands, and that the appointment of a successor rested with him also; besides this, three of the electors were heretics, and therefore the whole proceeding was null and void."

But the fierceness of his anger was reserved for heretical pravity. The establishment of the inquisition in Italy was chiefly owing to his zeal. In full unison with the principles of that infamous tribunal, he issued a decrec, (February, 1558,) by which all the ancient canons and edicts against heresy, of whatever age, were revived, with the censures and penalties enacted by his predecessors; obsolete and forgotten laws were renewed; and all prelates, princes, kings, and emperors who should fall into heresy, were declared to be ipso facto deprived of their benefices, dominions, kingdoms, or empires, which his Holiness bestowed on the first good Catholic who was strong enough to lay his hands on them. 42 Men smiled at the childish ravings of the old man; but he seriously meant all he said, and those who were within reach of his power felt it to their costDuring his government the inquisitors found ample employment; the dungeons were crowded with prisoners, and the dreadful work of torture and death was plied with unremitting diligence. "The inquisition spread alarm every where, and created the very evils which it sought to allay. Princes and princesses, priests, friars, and bishops, entire academies, the sacred college, and even the holy office itself, fell under the suspicion of heretical pravity. The conclave was subjected to an expurgatory process. Cardinals Morone and Pole, with Foscarari, bishop of Modena, Aloysio Priuli, and other persons of eminence, were prosecuted as heretics. It was at last found necessary to introduce laymen into the inquisition, 'because,' to use the words of a contemporary

Pallav. I. xiv. c. 6. Sarpi, s. 37.

42 Sarpi, s. 36. Raynald, ad An. 1558. s. 14.

writer, 'not only many bishops, and vicars, and friars, but also many of the inquisitors themselves, were tainted with heresy.'....Such was the frenzied zeal of this infallible dotard, that, if his life had been spared a little longer, the poet's description of the effects of superstition would have been realized, 'and one capricious curse enveloped all.' "43

The peace of Cambray (April, 1559.) restored general tranquillity to Europe. By one of its articles, the contracting parties (the kings of France and Spain) bound themselves to use their utmost endeavours to procure the resumption of the council. The execution of

their design would probably have involved them in a quarrel with the Pope, since it is not likely that he would have met their wishes, either as to the place of meeting or the method of procedure. But his death removed every difficulty out of the way.

At his advanced age, (he was upwards of eighty) and in the shattered state of his health, which had been long declining, Paul was ill prepared to struggle with disappointment and mortification. Several events occurred about this time that deeply affected his mind, filled him with anxiety and alarm, and ultimately brought him to the grave.

At home, the popular discontent was daily increasing. The general distress occasioned by the late war, and the heavy taxes with which the people had been burdened in order to carry it on, together with the violent and sanguinary proceedings of the pontiff, had completely alienated from him the affections of his subjects, so that he had become the object of universal detestation, and only the supposed sanctity of his office prevented open rebellion. 4 4

Abroad, there was no cheering prospect to counterbalance these evils. Protestantism was almost every where triumphant, and bade defiance to the efforts which had been employed for its suppression. Spain itself was not free from the infection, and even the household of the late emperor had been suspected of the taint of heresy. In France, the labours of Calvin and Beza, and

43 M'Crie's History of the Reformation in Italy, p. 269. 44 Pallav. 1. xiv. c. 9.