and has done, we cannot fail to see what it is not, and cannot do. It is not a revival of the primitive doctrines and life of Christianity, and it is powerless to avert the evils that are now impending. Materialism and fatalism envelope the world. Men attend church, and profess with their lips to believe in the immortality of the soul, but in their hearts there is no belief. They profess to believe in the freedom of the will, but their lives betray the interior conviction that all things are controlled by circumstance. Says an eloquent French writer :-*

"One's heart stagnates to find that, in the universal progress, morality has not gained power. The idea of free-will and of moral responsibility becomes daily fainter. Strange! in proportion as the old fatalism of climates and of races, which weighed upon antique man, lessens and fades away, there succeeds and grows up as if a fatalism of ideas. You cannot look out at the window without beholding this lava of fatalism. Vainly do the symbolism of Vico and of Herder, the natural pantheism of Schelling, the historic pantheism of Hegel, the history of races and the history of ideas, which have done so much honor to France, differ in every thing else; against liberty they are all agreed. The artist even, the poet, who is bound to no system, but who reflects the idea of his age, has, with his pen of bronze, inscribed on the old cathedral this sinister word, Aváyxn,' Necessity.'

"So wavers the poor, small light of moral liberty. And yet the tempest of opinions, the wind of passion, blow from the four quarters of the world. The light burns, widowed, and solitary; each day, each hour, it sheds a weaker gleam. So feebly does it glimmer, that there are moments when, like him lost in the catacombs, I think I already feel darkness, and the cold night . . . Can it go out? Never! never!" &c.

We have now considered the state of the church and of religious ideas. We propose next to speak of the present state of the world. And here the most careless observer cannot fail to perceive that the social and political relations of the people of Christendom are rapidly approaching a crisis. The earth has not ceased to be a bountiful mother. The fields still yield an abundant harvest, and the waters furnish their supply. More than sufficient is produced, more than sufficient is fabricated, to supply the wants of all. And yet, in the midst of wealth and abundance, so unequal is the distribution, that perpetual hostility is generated, because the few riot in profusion, and the many have not the means to sustain life. While the millions claim the inalienable right to a subsistence from the proceeds of their labor, the legal principle of free competition, the right to get all we can, and to hold all we get, is more loudly than ever asserted, and is reducing the masses to the most abject misery. Selfishness arrays every man in opposition to his neighbor; and in such a conflict, the victory is sure to accrue to the crafty and the strong. What then is to prevent the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few to such a degree, as to make endurance no longer possible to the masses? What can associations, and combinations, and trade-unions do to avert this catastrophe? Nothing. Prudent men already foresee that no change of administration, no repeal of corn-laws can do more than delay it for a time. This is the problem which none can solve. The wise men of England, of France, of America, stand aghast and furnish

*Michelet "Histoire de France."

no solution. In this connection we may be permited to quote a few paragraphs from a late French review:*

"Can we not already foresee," says the writer, "by what is passing in manufacturing countries, what is soon to happen? Even should there be no new invention, the development of existing industrial power would suffice to glut the markets of the world; but every year brings us inventions by hundreds, and improvements by thousands. And let it be well remarked, it will be henceforth impossible to arrest the progressive development of industry; too many interests would be compromised. Dragged, like Phaeton, upon a car which it is incapable of directing,-industry, no longer able to arrest itself or retrace its steps, will be forcibly thrust into paths unknown.

"In view of so perilous a position, what, in a few years, will become of all the other questions which have hitherto occupied the minds of men? Will they not be all absorbed by the alarming question of pauperism invading all the states of Europe in consequence of this development of industry? What importance will political or international questions then have, when the dimmest eyes shall at length see suspended over the head of society this new sword of Damocles? In vain will philanthropy multiply its efforts. What can it do, in the face of this constantly enlarging Colossus? The time will come, and that time is not distant, when all who cling to the existence of a social state will regard the religious principle as the only anchor of safety," &c.

The late lamented Dr. Channing has also left some remarks on this subject well worthy of attention: "Alarming as the truth is," he writes, "it should be told, that outward institutions cannot now secure us. Mightier powers than institutions have come into play among us, the judgment, the opinions, the feelings of the many; and all hopes of stability which do not rest on the progress of the many must perish."

And again: "The present civilization of the Christian world presents much to awaken doubt and apprehension. It stands in direct hostility to the great ideas of Christianity. It is selfish, mercenary, sensual. Such a civilization cannot, must not endure forever. How it is to be supplanted, I know not. I hope, however, that it is not doomed, like the old Roman civilization, to be quenched in blood. I trust that the works of ages are not to be laid low by violence, rapine, and the all-devouring sword. I trust that the existing social state contains in its bosom something better than it has yet unfolded. I trust that a brighter future is to come, not from the desolation, but from gradual meliorating changes of the present," &c.

Many schemes for reorganizing society have been presented, and some of them have points of great merit; but it may be said of them all, that a moral regeneration of man is an indispensable preliminary to their successful operation. To expect that men, selfish at heart, will anywhere live in harmony, and labor each for the benefit of the whole, is a sad delusion; and to expect that favorable external cir

*"La Nouvelle Jerusalem."

cumstances will of themselves create love and disinterestedness, is to mistake the effect for the cause. All human works, all social harmony, all laws, institutions, and customs, are but types or representations of previous existences in the mind of man. They exist from the mind, as from their archetype or cause, and by an invariable law, their degree of perfection must always be an exact image of that of the original. As well might we expect to reap where we have not sown, or to gather grapes where we have planted thistles, as to hope for perfect social relations where no corresponding sentiments exist in the mind of man, or for disinterestedness and love from hearts steeped in selfishness. Social Reformers have indeed presented us with a body, beautiful and of fair proportions, but where is the soul that shall give it the breath of life?

Thus far we have endeavored to make good the position, that at or about the present age of the world the period designated as the second advent may be looked for. Let us briefly sum up the ground we have already gone over.

We have endeavored to show that the destiny of man is one of progressive improvement; that this progress is effected by revelations of the Divine will; that a series of revelations may be expected before this work is complete!. We have also endeavored to show that prevalent opinion points to this age as the commencement of a new era ; that the actual state of the church and the world confirms this opinion; and that a crisis in human affairs is rapidly approaching, which can only be averted by superhuman power.

We do not presume to say we have conclusively proved any of these positions. Numberless objections may be and have been made to each and all of them, which we have not attempted to answer. Our limits, of course, would not permit it. An argument of probability is all we proposed. We have attempted to show that the positions may be true-that there is no improbability involved in supposing them true. We are quite confident, however, that they are all susceptible of proof by any one who has time and ability to devote to the task.

(To be concluded.)

J. L. J.

ARTICLE III.

HEAVEN.

ETYMOLOGY OF THE TERM.

IN the Hebrew, the equivalent word for our English "heaven" is shama-yim, which we are unable to trace to any living root in that tongue. But in the cognate Arabic the word shama signifies to be high or lifted up, and to this root lexicographers do not hesitate to refer the Hebrew term, as denoting an object or locality that is high,

lofty, sublime. The Greek word ouparòs, heaven, is of more doubtful origin. Philologists are greatly divided in regard to it. By perhaps the greater part of them it is traced to spaw, to see, as referring to the visible space which stretches into infinity on every side of us. The Latin cœlum is derived, not from the foregoing Greek term oúpavòs, but from another word in that language, o, koilon, signifying hollow. In this sense it imports, of course, that aspect of concavity which strikes us on looking up to the blue ethereal vault. Our English term "heaven," is traced back by etymologists to the verb "heave," of which the past tense was anciently "hove," and the participle "hoven," just as from "help" came formerly "holp" and "holpen," instead of "helped." The word therefore strictly implies that which is heaved up, conspicuously elevated; the original form of "hoven" being afterwards, in the process of the changes which are continually coming over language, softened to "heaven." The term, therefore, in English, is very nearly allied in import with its Hebrew equivalent. G. B.

ARTICLE IV.

BIBLICAL EXPOSITIONS.

III.

MATTHEW VI. 2.

Therefore, when thou doest thine alms, do not sound a trumpet before thee, as the hypocrites do, in the synagogues, and in the streets, that they may have glory of men. Verily, I say unto you, They have their reward."

THE original of the latter clause is απέχουσι τον μισθον αυτών, which Mr. Granville Penn in his translation of the New Testament, entitled "The New Covenant," labors hard and with some plausibility, to show, should be rendered, as it is by him "they are far from their reward." Knatchbull in his "Annotations" had preceded him in the suggestion. The following is the substance of his note on the passage: "Verily I say unto you they have, or receive their reward. So the generality of interpreters; or to that effect. But in the preceding verse, it is distinctly said, If ye do your alms before men, to be seen by them, ye have no reward,' &c., which is a positive denial; so that the following import would be more consistent, if those who so give their alms were said, not to have,' rather than to have their reward. To remedy this incongruity, I would certainly render the word with this difference; Verily I tell you, they prevent or keep away their reward. By accepting praise from men, they prevent praise from God; from whom they will not obtain it, if they bestow their alms before men, in order to be seen by them. I am well aware, that the

former sense may, as some think, be maintained by an applicable distinction, namely, That they have a worldly and frail reward; though not a solid and heavenly one. But, what need is there for a foreign and mystic sense; what need, I ask, is there for a distinction which is manifestly forced, and when the sense is direct without any distinction, and such as the common use of the words import? Now, we find in all the lexicographers, that κωλεύω, απέχω, εμποδίζω, signify the same thing (sc. to hinder, keep back, obstruct)," &c.

Mr. Penn, in his "Supplemental Annotations," goes largely into the Greek usage, both sacred and profane, to confirm this interpretation, by adducing proof that the genuine primitive sense of the verb anyw is to put away, to keep at a distance, to deprive one's self of, and that consequently the real import of the expression here is, that those who perform their alms with a view to human notice and eclat, lose the reward which they seek. The word is compounded of aro, from, and Exw, to have, and in the strictness of the letter may be conceived as implying having away, i. e. not having, and yet as usage does affix the positive sense of having to the word in some connections, we may recognise the twofold sense of having and not having-of gaining and losing-as couched under one and the same term. By obtaining the reward of human applause they lose the reward of heavenly grace.

We give in the connection Swedenborg's exposition of the passage, which contains substantially the same idea, where he says that the "delight of glory, which in the world appears to them as heaven, after death is turned or converted into hell." The one is the reward which they have, and the other the reward which they have not. "By alms, in a universal sense, is signified all the good which a man wills and does, and by praying, in the same sense, is signified all the truth which a man thinks and speaks: they who do these things that they may be seen, that is, that they may appear, do them for the sake of themselves and the world, because for the sake of glory, which is the delight of their love, and which they receive from the world; inasmuch as the reward of such persons is the delight of glory, it is said that they have their reward; howbeit the delight of glory, which in the world appears to them as heaven, after their departure out of the world is changed into hell, but they who do good and speak truth, not for the sake of themselves and the world, but for the sake of good itself and truth itself, are understood by those who do their alms in secret, and who pray in secret, for such act and pray for love or affection, thus from the Lord, and this is to love good and truth for the sake of good and truth: concerning these therefore it is said, that their Father in the heavens will reward them in what is manifest; wherefore to be in goods and truths from love and affection, which is the same thing as to be in them from the Lord, is reward, inasmuch as heaven is therein, and all the blessings and satisfaction of heaven. That by reward is signified salvation, consequently heaven, may appear without explication; but inasmuch as few know what is properly understood by reward, it shall be explained: by reward is properly understood that delight, satisfaction, and blessedness, which is contained in the love or affection of good and truth, for that love or that affection