Verse 1.Meat offering.'-This, the second in the enumeration of legal offerings, forms the subject of the present chapter. The original word is minchah, from the root manach, ' to give' or 'bestow ;' and hence properly a gift' or offering.' Instances of the use of the word in the general sense, so as to include even slain animals (as in Gen. iv. 3-5) do occur; but its ordinary and legal use in the books of the law is to distinguish a bloodless offering from a bloody sacrifice. The common rendering of the term in the Authorized Version by 'meat offering' is incorrect according to the modern acceptation of the word meat,' which is now applied exclusively to flesh. But it was correct at the time the translation was made, when meat had the same general meaning as 'food,'-which use of the word is still, indeed, preserved among uneducated people in the remoter provinces, who still call animal food flesh,' and food generally meat,' and who look upon the practice of applying the word 'meat' exclusively to flesh,' as a fine affectation, characteristic of gentry and Londoners. In Wilson's Christian Dictionary, published in 1622, and therefore coeval with the authorized translation meat' is defined as, 'something prepared to eat for bodily nourishment.' It is worth while to note this, as the word meat' is repeatedly used in this general sense in the translations of both the Old and New Testament.

From the nature of the offering, and from the general sentiment attached to it, it would seem to have been primarily intended as a grateful acknowledgment of the bounty and beneficence of God, as manifested in those gifts of his providence to which we owe our daily bread. It hence had a propitiatory reference, the idea of which seems to have been derived from the eastern custom of bringing presents, however humble, to a great person of whom a favour is asked, or whose good will one desires to cultivate. Hence the addition of the meat offering to the burnt offering; the propitiation of the meat offering being necessarily added to the expiation of the burnt offering in order to complete the atonement. The idea of the meat offering is propitiatory every where except in Lev. v. 11, where an expiatory signification is attached to it-because the offering there described is that of a poor man, who could not afford an animal sacrifice, and to which, therefore, in merciful accommodation to his poverty, the ideas belonging to the costlier sacrifice were transferred.

The meat offerings were either attended by drink offerings, or they were offered alone. 1. The meat offerings attended with drink offerings were, fine flour, salt, and oil, made either into thin cakes or thin wafers, and baked either in a pan or oven. The accompanying drink offering was of wine, which was poured out as a libation at the base of the altar. These offerings went along with all the burnt offerings except of birds, obviously because the birds being offered only by poor persons, they were excused from the obligation of adding a meat offering. They also accompanied the peace offerings (Num. xv. 3), but not the sin offerings, except that which was offered at the cleansing of a leper (Lev. xiv. 10). 2. The meat offerings alone, which were not offered along with animal sacrifices, were either public or private. The public were the wave sheaf (Lev. xxiii 10, 11), and the twelves cakes of the shew-bread (Lev. xxiv. 5); the private were either enjoined by the law, as that of the priest at his consecration (Lev. vi. 20), and that which the jealous husband was to offer (Num. v. 15), or, as already mentioned, they were allowed in case of poverty, in lieu of a more costly sacrifice. The meat offerings were all of wheaten flour, seasoned with salt, except that of the jealous husband, which was of barley meal, without any mixture; and excepting the wave sheaf, which was not ground into flour. Some were mixed with oil or frankincense, or both; some were offered unbaked, others baked; some were eaten by the priests, without bringing them to the altar at all, as the leavened cakes and the shew-bread; some were wholly consumed on the altar, as was every meat offering for a priest (Lev. vi. 23), but in most of them, a memorial or

small part was consumed on the altar, and the rest belonged to the priest.

4. Oven.'-The ovens of a people continually on the move, could have little resemblance to our own; and we can only discover what they probably were, by a reference to existing usages in the East. The trade of a baker is only carried on in large towns; people bake their own bread daily in villages and encampments, and to a very considerable extent in towns also. It is evident, therefore, that when individual families bake every day as much bread only as is required for that day, recollecting at the same time that fuel is in general scarce, it is necessary that the oven should be small, and consuming but little fuel. These requisites are fully met in the common family ovens of Western Asia. That which may be considered the most general is a circular pit in the earthen floor, usually between four and five feet deep, and about three feet in diameter. This pit is well plastered within; and the dough, which is in large oval or round cakes-not thicker than pancakes, which in appearance they very much resemble when done-is dexterously stuck against the sides of the pit, which has been previously heated, and has the glowing embers still at the bottom. This cake is not turned; and, from its thinness, is completely done in two or three minutes. Its moisture being then absorbed, it would fall from the sides of the oven into the fire, were it not removed in proper time. This bread is usually flexible and soft, and may be rolled up like paper; but if suffered to remain long enough, it becomes hard and crisp on the side which has been in contact with the oven; but it is seldom suffered to attain this state, although we, who have lived for above two years on this sort of bread, thought it far preferable in this form. It is to be observed, that this pit is not exclusively an oven; but, particularly in Persia, is often the only fireplace for general purposes, which is to be found in cottages, and even in some decent houses. Whether this was the oven' of the Hebrews in the desert, it is difficult to determine. It is formed with little expense or labour; but is more generally found in towns and villages than among the nomade tribes of the desert. The other things resembling ovens, act more or less upon the same principle as this. They are of various kinds; but they may generally be described as strong unglazed earthen vessels, which being heated by an internal fire, the bread is baked by being stuck against the sides, in the manner already noticed. Either the interior or outer surface is used for this purpose, according to the construction of the vessel, and the description of bread required. The common bread is sometimes baked on the outside of the heated vessel; and thus also is baked a kind of large crisp biscuit, as thin as a wafer, which is made by the application of a soft paste to the heated surface, which bakes it in an instant. Of this description, no doubt, is the wafer-bread which we find mentioned in verse 4 and elsewhere. The ovens of this sort with which the writer is most familiar are nearly three feet high, and about fifteen inches in diameter at the top, which is open. It gradually widens to the bottom, where there is a hole for the convenience of withdrawing the ashes. When the inside is exclusively used for baking, the outside is usually coated with clay, the better to concentrate the heat. We have seen them used under various circumstances. the vessels navigating the Tigris are usually furnished with one of them, for baking the daily supply of bread; and they are sometimes built to the deck for standing use. The Arab sailors have them also in their vessels on the Red Sea, and elsewhere. Sometimes a large water-vessel, with the bottom knocked out, is made to serve as a substitute, and goes by the same name. This name (tenûr) is, as nearly as possible, the original Hebrew word tannur, translated oven' in the text. Ovens, somewhat similar, are frequently used in houses in the place of the hole in the floor already mentioned, especially in apartments which have not the ground for their floor. They are then not only used for cooking and baking bread, but for warming the apartment. The top is then covered

Even

with a board, and over this a large cloth or counterpane is spread, and the people sit around, covering their legs and laps with the counterpane. So also the pit in the floor, when not in use for cooking or baking bread, is, in winter, covered over, and warms the apartment, in much the same manner. It remains to add, that bread is sometimes baked on an iron plate placed over the opening at the top of the oven. That the ovens of the Israelites in the desert were something on the principle of these earthen ovens, there is not much reason to question; and it is equally probable that those ovens which are mentioned after their settlement in Palestine were one of the two, or both of the modifications of the same principle which we have described as being ordinarily exhibited in the houses of Western Asia. These, of course, are not the only forms of baking bread. We mention them as they occur. One has been noticed in the remark on Gen. xviii. 6, and others occur in the notes to verses 5 and 7 of the present chapter.

5. Baken in a pan.'-In the preceding note we have mentioned a mode of baking bread on an iron plate laid on the top of the oven; but a more simple and primitive use of a baking plate is exemplified among the nomade tribes of Asia. We first witnessed the process at a small encampment of Eelauts in the north of Persia. There was a convex plate of iron (copper is often in use) placed horizontally about nine inches from the ground, the edges being supported by stones. There was a slow fire underneath, and the large thin cakes were laid upon the upper or convex surface, and baked with the same effect as when stuck to the sides of an oven, but rather more slowly. The thin wafer bread of soft paste can be baked by the same process, which is recommended to the wandering tribes by the simplicity and portability of the apparatus. We believe that a flat plate is sometimes employed in this way, though we do not recollect to have witnessed its use. Chardin thinks that this process was in use long before ovens of any kind were known; and he is probably right. Unleavened oatmeal cakes, baked on an iron plate called 'a girdle,' are still very general in Scotland, and also in the north of England.

6. Part it in pieces, and pour oil thereon.'-We here see bread, after being baked, broken up again and mingled with oil. Was this an extraordinary and peculiar preparation for the altar, or was it a preparation in common use among the Hebrews? We incline to the latter opinion; as it seems to differ very little from a common and standard dish among the Bedouin Arabs. This is made of unleavened paste, baked in thin cakes, which are afterwards broken up, and thoroughly kneaded with butter, adding sometimes honey, and sometimes milk, but generally employing butter alone for the purpose. This second kneading brings it into the state in which it is eaten with great satisfaction by the Arabs. The only difference between this and the preparation in the text, is the use of butter instead of oil; and in its not being said here that the bread was kneaded anew, but only that it was broken up and mingled with oil. These points of difference are not very essential. The Bedouins, as a pastoral people, have no oil; but are very fond of it when it can be obtained: butter, therefore, as used by them, may be regarded as a substitute for the oil' of the text. And as to the want of a second kneading in the present case, it is by no means certain that such kneading did not take place, even though it is not specified. Besides, the Bedouins do not always knead the broken bread again with butter, but are content to soak or dip the broken morsels in melted butter. It is probable that the present text explains the

mingling with oil, mentioned in verses 4 and 7, better than by supposing that the paste was tempered with oil before being baked. Using oil with bread continues to be a very common practice in the East; and the Bedouin Arabs, and generally other Orientals, are fond of dishes composed of broken bread, steeped not only in oil, butter, and milk, but also in preparations of honey, syrups, and vegetable juices. Oil only is allowed in the meat offerings,' honey being expressly interdicted in verse 11; and this shews that the use of honey with bread was even thus early common among the Israelites.

6

7. Baken in the frying-pan.'-There is in use among the Bedouins and others a shallow earthen vessel, somewhat resembling a frying-pan, and which is used both for frying, and for baking one sort of bread. Something of this sort is thought to be intended here. There is also used in Western Asia a modification of this pan, resembling the Eastern oven, which Jerome describes as a round vessel of copper, blackened on the outside by the surrounding fire, which heats it within. This might be either the oven' or the pan' of the present chapter. This pan-baking is common enough in England, where the villagers bake large loaves under inverted round iron pots, with embers and slow-burning fuel heaped upon them. But it is probable that the fire plate, which we have noticed under verse 5, is really intended here, and that the pan' there, is the frying-pan' of the present text. This seems to us very probable, as the name given by the Bedouins to this utensil is tajen, which is nearly identical with the name (Tnyávov) which the Septuagint gives to thepan' in verse 5. It is useful to obtain this etymological identification of the Arabian tajen with one of the pans' of this chapter, but it is of little importance to determine which pan' it is. Upon the whole, the oven, the pan, and the frying-pan of verses 4, 5, and 7, may, as it appears to us, be referred with much confidence to the clay oven, the metal plate, and the earthen vessel which we have noticed.

11. No leaven.'-There is an evident antithesis between the interdiction of leaven and the commanded use of salt (verse 13) in every sacrifice and oblation. Leaven, however useful, is regarded, in its principle, as a species of putrefaction, since that which is leavened very soon spoils in the warm regions of the east, whereas unleavened bread may be kept any length of time. At the present day, the cakes or bread offered in the ceremonies of the Hindoos are always unleavened, although leaven is employed in the bread used for domestic purposes. (Roberts's Oriental Illustrations.) On the other hand, the wellknown preservative qualities of salt, rendered it symbolical of incorruption and soundness; and therefore its adoption in the offerings was dictated by the same considerations, whether physical or figurative, which precluded the use of leaven. In other illustrations we shall have occasions to notice the place which salt occupies in the estimation of some nations; and we may now observe, that so far from the use of salt here being, as some think, in opposition to pagan practices, it is certain that salt was used by the heathen at a very early period in their sacrifices and oblations. Homer expressly mentions sacred salt,' as strewed upon sacritices, and also speaks of offerings of salted cakes. In fact, salt occupies a conspicuous place in the heathen sacrifices both without and with blood. In the latter, not only was a salted cake,' mola salsa, put on the head of the victim, but salt, together with meal, was strewed on the victims, the fire, and the knives.

CHAPTER III.

1 The peace offering of the herd, 6 of the flock, 7 either a lamb, 12 or a goat. AND if his oblation be a sacrifice of peace offering, if he offer it of the herd; whether it

be a male or female, he shall offer it without blemish before the LORD.

2 And he shall lay his hand upon the head of his offering, and kill it at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation: and Aaron's

sons the priests shall sprinkle the blood upon the altar round about.

3 And he shall offer of the sacrifice of the peace offering an offering made by fire unto the LORD; the 'fat that covereth the inwards, and all the fat that is upon the inwards,

4 And the two kidneys, and the fat that is on them, which is by the flanks, and the 'caul above the liver, with the kidneys, it shall he take away.

5 And Aaron's sons shall burn it on the altar upon the burnt sacrifice, which is upon the wood that is on the fire: it is an offering made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD. 6 And if his offering for a sacrifice of peace offering unto the LORD be of the flock; male or female, he shall offer it without blemish. 7 If he offer a lamb for his offering, then shall he offer it before the LORD.

8 And he shall lay his hand upon the head of his offering, and kill it before the tabernacle of the congregation: and Aaron's sons shall sprinkle the blood thereof round about upon the altar.

9 And he shall offer of the sacrifice of the peace offering an offering made by fire unto the LORD; the fat thereof, and the whole rump, it shall he take off hard by the backbone; and the fat that covereth the inwards, and all the fat that is upon the inwards,

10 And the two kidneys, and the fat that is upon them, which is by the flanks, and the caul above the liver, with the kidneys, it shall he take away.

11 And the priest shall burn it upon the altar it is the food of the offering made by fire unto the LORD.

12 ¶ And if his offering be a goat, then he shall offer it before the LORD.

13 And he shall lay his hand upon the head of it, and kill it before the tabernacle of the congregation: and the sons of Aaron shall sprinkle the blood thereof upon the altar round about.

14 And he shall offer thereof his offering, even an offering made by fire unto the LORD; the fat that covereth the inwards, and all the fat that is upon the inwards,

15 And the two kidneys, and the fat that is upon them, which is by the flanks, and the caul above the liver, with the kidneys, it shall he take away.

16 And the priest shall burn them upon the altar: it is the food of the offering made by fire for a sweet savour: 'all the fat is the LORD'S.

17 It shall be a perpetual statute for your generations throughout all your dwellings, that ye eat neither fat nor "blood.

4 Chap. 7. 25.

5 Gen. 9. 4. Chap. 7. 26, and 17. 14.

Verse 1. A sacrifice of peace.'-The 'peace offerings' to which this chapter relates, were, like the burnt offerings, and meat offerings, the voluntary offerings of the people. They were either intended to testify thankfulness for blessings already received, in which view they are called 'thank-offerings' in Coverdale's translation; or were else votive, being offered with prayer for future blessings. No doubt they were sometimes both in one. The offerings might be either of animals, or of flour or dough. The distinction between this and the burnt offerings' as to animals, was that either males or females might be offered in this, but only males in the other; and that, in this, the whole was not consumed on the altar, as in the burnt offering. Only the fat parts were so consumed. A small portion was appropriated to the priest, the rest being allowed to the offerer and his guests as an offering feast, whence some translators prefer to translate Dp

shela

mim, by feast sacrifice' rather than peace offering.' The parts of either the animal or vegetable offerings that were appropriated to the priests and Levites were called 'heave' or wave offerings;' because they were heaved or lifted up towards heaven, and waved to and fro before they were eaten, in acknowledgment of the goodness of God, and also in token of their being consecrated to him.

9. The whole rump, it shall he take off hard by the backbone.'-Dr. Geddes renders more distinctly: The large fat tail entire, cut off close to the rump.' It might seem extraordinary that the tail of a sheep (only of a sheep) should be pointed out with so much care as a suitable offering upon God's altar, were it not dis

tinctly understood what sheep and what tail is intended. (See the cut and note to Gen. iv. 2.) The direction indicates that the fat-tailed species were usually offered in sacrifice, if the flocks of the Hebrews were not wholly composed of them. This species is particularly abundant in Syria and Palestine, equalling or outnumbering the common Bedouin species. Even the latter, although in other respects much resembling the common English sheep, is distinguished by a larger and thicker tail than any British species possesses. But the tail of the species peculiarly called fat tailed,' seems to exceed all reasonable bounds, and has attracted the attention of all travellers from the times of Herodotus to our own. These tails, or rather, tails loaded on each side with enormous masses of fat, are often one-fourth the weight of the whole carcass when divested of the head, intestines, and skin. The tails seem to attain the largest size in the countries with which the Hebrews were most conversant; for in countries more eastward we never saw them quite so large as the largest of those described by Dr. Russell in his Natural History of Aleppo. He says that a common sheep of this sort, without the head, feet, entrails and skin, weighs sixty or seventy pounds, of which the tail usually weighs fifteen or upwards; but he adds, that such as are of the largest breed and have been fattened with care, will sometimes weigh 150 lbs., the tails being 50 lbs. These very large sheep are kept in yards where they are in no danger of injuring their tails; but in some other places where they feed in the fields, the shepherds sometimes affix a thin piece of board to the under part of the tail, to prevent its being torn by bushes and thickets, as it is not covered un

derneath with thick wool like the upper part. Sometimes the board is furnished with small wheels, whence comes, with a little exaggeration, the story of the Oriental sheep being under the necessity of having carts to carry their tails. This is less an exaggeration with respect to the African variety, in which the tail is not turned up at the end as in the Syrian species, and therefore would actually trail on the ground, when fattened, without some such assistance. The mutton of these sheep is very good, and the fat of the

CHAPTER IV.

1 The sin offering of ignorance, 3 for the priest, 13 for the congregation, 22 for the ruler, 27 for any of the people.

AND the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,

2 Speak unto the children of Israel, saying, If a soul shall sin through ignorance against any of the commandments of the LORD, concerning things which ought not to be done, and shall do against any of them:

3 If the priest that is anointed do sin according to the sin of the people; then let him bring for his sin, which he hath sinned, a young bullock without blemish unto the LORD for a sin offering.

4 And he shall bring the bullock unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation before the LORD; and shall lay his hand upon the bullock's head, and kill the bullock before the LORD.

5 And the priest that is anointed shall take of the bullock's blood, and bring it to the tabernacle of the congregation.

6 And the priest shall dip his finger in the blood, and sprinkle of the blood seven times before the LORD, before the vail of the sanctuary.

7 And the priest shall put some of the blood upon the horns of the altar of sweet incense before the LORD, which is in the tabernacle of the congregation; and shall pour 'all the blood of the bullock at the bottom of the altar of the burnt offering, which is at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation.

8 And he shall take off from it all the fat of the bullock for the sin offering; the fat that covereth the inwards, and all the fat that is upon the inwards,

9 And the two kidneys, and the fat that is upon them, which is by the flanks, and the caul above the liver, with the kidneys, it shall he take away,

10 As it was taken off from the bullock of the sacrifice of peace offerings: and the priest shall burn them upon the altar of the burnt offering.

tail is the most grateful animal fat the present writer ever tasted. It is rich and marrowy, and is never eaten alone, but is mixed up in many dishes with lean meat, and is in various ways employed as a substitute for butter and oil. The standing oriental dish, boiled rice, is peculiarly palatable when lubricated with fat from the tail of this remarkable species of sheep. Viewed in its various applications, the tail is an article of great use and delicacy, and could be no unworthy offering.

his flesh, with his head, and with his legs, and his inwards, and his dung,

12 Even the whole bullock shall he carry forth without the camp unto a clean place, where the ashes are poured out, and 'burn him on the wood with fire: "where the ashes are poured out shall he be burnt.

13 And if the whole congregation of Israel sin through ignorance, and the thing be hid from the eyes of the assembly, and they have done somewhat against any of the commandments of the LORD, concerning things which should not be done, and are guilty;

14 When the sin, which they have sinned against it, is known, then the congregation shall offer a young bullock for the sin, and bring him before the tabernacle of the congregation.

15 And the elders of the congregation shall lay their hands upon the head of the bullock before the LORD: and the bullock shall be killed before the LORD.

16 And the priest that is anointed shall bring of the bullock's blood to the tabernacle of the congregation.

17 And the priest shall dip his finger in some of the blood, and sprinkle it seven times before the LORD, even before the vail.

18 And he shall put some of the blood upon the horns of the altar which is before the LORD, that is in the tabernacle of the congregation, and shall pour out all the blood at the bottom of the altar of the burnt offering, which is at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation.

19 And he shall take all his fat from him, and burn it upon the altar.

20 And he shall do with the bullock as he did with the bullock for a sin offering, so shall he do with this and the priest shall make an atonement for them, and it shall be forgiven them.

21 And he shall carry forth the bullock without the camp, and burn him as he burned the first bullock: it is a sin offering for the congregation.

22 When a ruler hath sinned, and done 4 Heb. 13. 11. 5 Heb. at the pouring out of the ashes.

1 Chap. 5. 9.