Pharaoh, and they did so as the LORD had commanded: and Aaron cast down his rod before Pharaoh, and before his servants, and it became a serpent.

11 Then Pharaoh also called the wise men and the sorcerers: now the magicians of Egypt, they also did in like manner with their enchantments.

12 For they cast down every man his rod, and they became serpents: but Aaron's rod swallowed up their rods.

13 And he hardened Pharaoh's heart, that he hearkened not unto them; as the LORD had said.

14 And the LORD said unto Moses, Pharaoh's heart is hardened, he refuseth to let the people go.

15 Get thee unto Pharach in the morning; lo, he goeth out unto the water; and thou shalt stand by the river's brink against he come; and the rod which was turned to a serpent shalt thou take in thine hand.

16 And thou shalt say unto him, The LORD God of the Hebrews hath sent me unto thee, saying, Let my people go, that they may serve me in the wilderness: and, behold, hitherto thou wouldest not hear.

17 Thus saith the LORD, In this thou shalt know that I am the LORD: behold, I will smite with the rod that is in mine hand upon the waters which are in the river, and they shall be turned to blood.

18 And the fish that is in the river shall
1 Heb. gathering of their waters.
2 Chap. 17. 5.

Verse 12. They cast down every man his rod, and they became serpents.'-A new and very interesting explanation of this difficult circumstance has been given by Col. C. H. Smith, affording a remarkable example of the illustration which many passages of Scripture may receive from natural science. Col. Smith conceives that the species of serpent in question was the Naja Haje, the undoubted Ihhnuphi, cneph, or agathodæmon of ancient Egypt, on whose monuments it is frequently represented. This serpent inflates the skin of the neck into an intumefaction of that part: and the Psylli or serpent-charmers, by a particular pressure on the neck, can render the inflation of the animal so intense that the serpent becomes rigid, and can be held out horizontally, as if it were a staff. We may therefore infer that the magicians of Pharaoh used a real serpent for a rod-namely this species, now called Naja haje-for their imposture; since they no doubt did what the present serpent-charmers perform with the same species, by means of a temporary asphyxiation, or suspension of vitality; and producing restoration to active life by liberating or throwing down. Thus we have the miraculous character of the prophet's mission shewn by his real rod becoming a serpent, and the magicians' real serpents merely assuming the form of rods; and when both were opposed in a state of animated existence, by the rod devouring the living animals, conquering the great typical personification of the protecting divinity of Egypt. See the article 'ADDER,' in the Cyclopædia of Biblical Literature.

die, and the river shall stink; and the Egyptians shall lothe to drink of the water of the river.

19 And the LORD spake unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Take thy rod, and stretch out thine hand upon the waters of Egypt, upon their streams, upon their rivers, and upon their ponds, and upon all their 'pools of water, that they may become blood; and that there may be blood throughout all the land of Egypt, both in vessels of wood, and in vessels of stone.

20 And Moses and Aaron did so, as the LORD commanded; and he 'lifted up the rod, and smote the waters that were in the river, in the sight of Pharaoh, and in the sight of his servants; and all the waters that were in the river were turned to blood.

21 And the fish that was in the river died; and the river stank, and the Egyptians could not drink of the water of the river; and there was blood throughout all the land of Egypt.

22 And the magicians of Egypt did so with their enchantments: and Pharaoh's heart was hardened, neither did he hearken unto them; as the LORD had said.

23 And Pharaoh turned and went into his house, neither did he set his heart to this also.

24 And all the Egyptians digged round about the river for water to drink; for they could not drink of the water of the river.

25 And seven days were fulfilled, after that the LORD had smitten the river.

In a

15. Stand by the river's brink.' This is the Nile. This indefinite indication the river,' always sufficiently denotes the Nile in speaking of Egypt, because in fact that country does not possess any other river. distance of 1350 nautical miles, from the mouth of the Tacazze to the Delta, the Nile does not receive a single tributary stream from either the east or west, which, as remarked by Humboldt, is a solitary instance in the bydrographic history of the globe. It is to this noble river that Egypt owes its fertility and even its existence. The soil of Egypt was no doubt originally formed by the earth brought down by the river from Abyssinia and the interior of Africa, and deposited during the annual inundation; and that it has been progressively elevated in the course of ages from the same cause, is demonstrated by a considerable number of distinct facts. Thus towns and buildings which are known from history to have been originally built on mounds, to secure them from the effects of the inundation, now lie so low on the plain as to be inundated every year: and it also appears that a greater rise in the river seems now necessary to prevent a dearth, than was required in the age of Herodotus. Thus, in time, the land of Egypt would become desolate, from the failure of the inundation which is essential to its fertility, were not an equilibrium preserved by a nearly corresponding elevation of the river's bed, so that the point of overflow is maintained nearly in the same ratio with the elevation of the soil. Among other facts, this is demonstrated by the ancient Nilometer near Elephantine, mentioned by Strabo, which is still in existence. The highest measure marked upon it is twenty-four cubits: but the water now rises, when at its greatest elevation, nearly eight feet above this mark; while it appears from an inscription on the wall, made in the third century A.D., that the water then rose only a foot above that level. This gives an elevation of about five inches in a century; and it has been collected, from quite independent data, that the rise in the circumjacent soil has been nearly in the same proportion. It is true that there are isolated facts which seem to militate against this general conclusion; but they may be accounted for by supposing certain irregularities, in themselves very probable, which in some places make the rise in the bed of the river exceed that in the neighbouring soil, and in

others make the elevation of the soil to exceed that of the river's bottom. Dr. Shaw, who estimates the increase in the depth of the soil at rather more than a foot in a century, observes that Egypt must have gained 41 feet S inches of soil in 4072 years; and as he does not sufficiently advert to the corresponding elevation of the river's bed, he sees cause to fear that, in process of time, the river will not be able to overflow its banks, and Egypt, from being the most fertile, will become, from the want of the annual inundation, one of the most barren countries in the universe.

The swell of the river varies in different parts of its channel. In Upper Egypt it is from 30 to 35 feet; at Cairo it is about 23 feet, whilst in the northern part of the Delta it does not exceed four feet, which is owing to the artificial channels, and the breadth of the inundation. Yet the four feet of increase is as necessary to the fertility of the Delta as the twenty-three or thirty feet elsewhere. The river begins to swell in June, but the rise is not rapid or remarkable until early in July; the greatest height is attained about the autumnal equinox, and the waters remain nearly at the same level until the middle of October. After this the subsidence is very sensible, and the lowest point is reached in April. These phenomena, however striking, are by no means peculiar to the Nile: they are more or less common to all rivers whose volume is annually augmented by periodical rains; but there is no river the annual swelling of which is so replete with important consequences, or so essential to the existence of a nation. This is because Egypt depends wholly upon the river for its fertility; and wherever the influence of its inundation does not extend, there the soil is desert. Very little rain ever falls in Egypt. At Thebes, not more than four or five showers fall, on an average, in one year: and although in Lower Egypt, and particularly on the coast, rains are more frequent, they are confined to the winter season, and are short in their duration. Therefore the irrigation which the land receives through the direct overflow of the Nile, and by means of the canals which convey its waters where the inundation does not directly extend, is quite essential to that fertility for which Egypt has in all times been proverbial. The inhabitants of Egypt have with great labour cut a vast number of canals and trenches

through the whole extent of the land. These canals are not opened till the river has attained a certain height, nor yet all at the same time, as then the distribution of the water would be unequal. The sluices are closed when the water begins to subside, and are gradually opened again in the autumn, allowing the waters to pass on to contribute to the irrigation of the Delta. The distribution of the Nile water has always been subject to distinct and minute regulations, the necessity for which may be estimated from the common statement, that scarcely a tenth part of the water of the Nile reaches the sea in the first three months of the inundation. Minute regulations are necessary in our own land for the equal distribution of streams which afford power to mills. In a country whose fertility essentially depends upon one great fertilizing power, such regulations must have been amongst the first steps in the laws of civilization. Lower Mesopotamia, which in the time of Herodotus competed with Egypt the palm of exuberant production, is now a desert, in consequence of the abandonment of a system of irrigation, which, from actual inspection, we should judge to have been nearly analogous to that which continues to fertilize the land of the Nile. During the inundation, the whole level country appears like a series of ponds and reservoirs; and it is not merely the saturation of the ground, but the deposit of mould or soil which takes place during the overflow, that is so favourable to the agriculture of Egypt. This mud contains principles so friendly to vegetation, that it is used as manure for those places which have not been adequately benefited by the inundation; and, on the other hand, where the deposit has been complete, the people are said to mingle sand with it to abate its strength. The cultivation of the ground commences as soon as the waters have retired, and where the soil has been sufficiently saturated the labours of agriculture are exceedingly light. The seed is sown in the moistened soil, and vegetation and harvest follow with such rapidity, as to allow a succession of crops, wherever water can be commanded. The influence of the river upon the condition and appearance of the country can only be estimated by comparing its aspect in the season which immediately precedes, with that which follows the inundation. Volney has illustrated this, by observing that the surface of the land successively assumes the appearance of an ocean of fresh water, of a miry morass, of a green level plain, and of a parched desert of sand and dust.

It was the feeling generally entertained of their entire dependence upon the river, co-operating with the natural disposition of man to look rather to the secondary causes, than to the infinitely great and good God from whom all blessings come, which led the Egyptians to deify their Nile, which had its appointed priests, festivals, and sacrifices and even now, under the sterner system of the Moslem religion, the reverence entertained for this stream, still called the Most Holy River,' and the rites with which its benefits are celebrated, seem to exhibit a tendency towards the same form of acknowledgment and gratitude.

17. The waters which are in the river. . . shall be turned to blood.'-This probably means no more than that the water became red like blood, it being a common Hebrew form of speech, of which we have already had seve ral instances, to describe similarity by identity. The class of commentators who are anxious to explain the Scripture miracles on natural principles have been very unfortunate with this one. It is attested by various travellers that the waters of the Nile, at one period during the time of increase, become of a brownish red colour; owing probably to the earth which the river brings down from Abyssinia. Some are inclined to consider this as the discoloration alluded to in the text. To this there are the strongest objections. One is, that if it had been a common occurrence, the Egyptians could not have been surprised or intimidated. Another is, that the water, while subject to this red discoloration, is so far from being unwholesome, that its turning red is a sign that it has become fit for use:

for it is preceded by a greenish discoloration, during which the water is so corrupt, tasteless, and unwholesome, that the natives confine themselves to the water which they preserve in cisterns. Another objection to this hypothesis is, that the transactions recorded here could not have happened later than February, as we are enabled to perceive by the condition of the agricultural produce, as specified in chap. ix. 31. But the rise of the river, which is attended by the red discoloration, does not take place till several months later; if, therefore, the discoloration was natural, the river must have risen at a very unusual season of the year; and this-considering the astonishing punctuality, even to a day, of the periods of increase and subsidence would be no less a miracle than the supernatural discoloration of the river. Michaelis and others, however, rather than admit the latter alternative, allow that the miracle consisted in an anticipatory rise of the river being produced at the command of Moses. We do not see what is gained by this hypothesis, or that the miracle would be in this case less striking than in the other.

18.

The Egyptians shall loath to drink of the water of the river. There is an intensity in this which should not escape notice; it is as much as to say that the Egyptians should hate that which was dearest to them, and which they most admired and worshipped. To the adoration of the Nile we have alluded in the note on verse 15. We have now to add, that the admirable quality of its water has been the theme of praise among both natives and foreigners, in ancient and modern times. Very ancient writers inform us that the water was considered so nourishing that the priests abstained from giving it to their sacred bull Apis, lest he should become too fat; and others state, that it never became impure, whether preserved at home or exported abroad. The Egyptians were even said to put it in jars, and to keep it three, four, or more years, under the impression that, like wine, the longer it was kept the better it became. Benjamin of Tudela describes the water as both drink and medicine; and our countryman, John Sanderson, who was in Egypt in 1586-7, says (in Purchas), Nilus water I thinke to be the profitablest and wholesomest in the world, by being both bread and drinke to them; for bread there could be none without it. It breedeth no manner of disease in the body, as divers other waters doe: it hurteth not to drinke thereof either troubled or cleere; for being brought to our houses, one mile and a halfe or two miles off, it cometh in warmer than blood, and troubled, seeming sandy; but standing all night in our jars of earth, it is very clear and cool in the morning, and so continueth in the house be the weather never so hot. Subsequent travellers confirm this account. It is said that the natives excite thirst artificially that they may drink the more of this delicious water; and it is a saying among them, that had Mohammed himself drunk of it, he would have desired to live for ever, that he might always enjoy it. Those who go on pilgrimages and journies, seem to have all other regrets absorbed in that of wanting the Nile water, and talk of little else but the pleasure they anticipate in drinking it when they return. Nor is this merely the natural partiality of the thirsty Africans for their own river: Europeans in general allow that they have not found such water in any other place. Maillet, who expatiates with much satisfaction on the subject, says, that when a stranger drinks it for the first time it seems like a drink prepared by art: he confesses that it had rather too much sweetness for his taste; but says that it is among waters what champagne is among wines. Perhaps this account is highly coloured; but there is no doubt, from the united testimony of various travellers, that the Nile water has some peculiarly agreeable qualities, which are doubtless the more strongly ap preciated in consequence of the unpleasant character of the only other water which can be obtained in Egyptthat from the wells.

merous instances of the author's intimate knowledge of Egypt, and may therefore be quoted in proof of the truth and authority of the book. The waters of Egypt'are such as here described, and almost peculiar to that country. The neharoth, rendered streams,' appear to be the arms of the Nile; the yeorim, translated 'rivers,' are the artificial canals, which abounded in that country; the N aggamim, are, as rendered, the stagnant ponds' made by the Nile, called in Egypt birkeh, of which there are many; and the mikveh mayim,' pools of water,' means all the other standing water, or that which is left behind by the Nile, the lakes and puddles, from which the peasants who live at a distance from the Nile, at this day water their lands. Indeed the inhabitants of Cairo are said to drink much of this water, which is brought to them by the water-carriers instead of the Nile water, which is further off. Thevenot, Voyage, i. 173. Faber, in the German edit. of Harmer's Observations, pp. 326, 327.

-'Both in vessels of wood and vessels of stone.'-These words have at the first view a singular appearance, and require the explanation afforded by the peculiar usages of Egypt. Under ordinary circumstances, the Egyptians are accustomed to purify the turbid water of the Nile in vessels of wood or stone, usually the latter. When it is desirable to purify it quickly, a ball of crushed almonds is thrown in; but when there is time for the purification, it is done without them. The process of purification by almonds is particularly described by Prosper Alpinus, Pococke, and Savary. By the ordinary process, the water in large vessels of wood, earth, and even unburned clay, settles in the course of a day or two. There is also another process by which river water intended for drinking is rendered not only clear as crystal, but most refreshingly cool. It is placed in large vessels of a kind of earth or white clay, which are propped upon wooden frames, under which is placed another vessel to receive the droppings of the water which percolates steadily through them. These are also used in the towns of the Tigris and Euphrates, and afford the inhabitants the inestimable luxury of cold and clear water in the hottest seasons. They are frequently represented in the Egyptian sculptures and paintings, both in the domestic and harvest scenes, in the latter of which the vessel, supported on the usual frame, stands in the harvest field, to furnish refreshment to the thirsty and heated labourers. It is with reference to these facts-to the knowledge that the Egyptians kept large quantities of water in vessels to purify and cool for use-that we are enabled to understand this part of the infliction which was brought upon them, and which they must have felt very severely; for not only were their great and customary sources of supply contaminated, but the water which they had in their houses for immediate purposes was rendered unfit for use.

21. The fish that was in the river died.'-As we touch here and there on the condition and usages of ancient Egypt, as illustrating the effect of these plagues, our conviction increases that those who would fully appreciate this series of wonderful transactions would do well to acquaint themselves with the current accounts of that remarkable country in which they took place. Every line in the history of the plagues, seems to have a point and force which, without some knowledge of Egypt, cannot be properly appreciated. The text before us will then appear to have a most forcible meaning, which might else be overlooked. It is repeatedly stated by Herodotus that fish formed the principal subsistence of the Egyptian people. They ate them either salted or dried in the sun, without any other preparation. Diodorus says that, from the time of the king Moris, a great body of men found continual occupation in salting the fish caught in the lake

digged by that prince. Diodorus also describes the Nile as abounding in fish, not only sufficient to supply the people with fresh fish, but to enable them to salt large quantities for exportation. He adds, with truth, that there was not

in the world a river more serviceable to mankind than the Nile. The Egyptians are the first people whom history mentions as curing any kind of meat with salt for preservation. They used fossil salt, which they got from the African deserts: sea salt, and everything belonging to the sea, being abhorred by them. The priests abstained from the fish even of the Nile; but whether because they considered the natives of the river too sacred to be eaten by them, or too impure from their possible communication with the sea, authors are not agreed. Clement of Alexandria gives the former reason, and Plutarch the latter. These facts will explain the force of this plague, not only in spoiling the delicious water of the idolized river, but as touching at the same time their principal means of subsistence. Le Bruyn hastily affirmed that there are few fish in the Nile; and Harmer has thought it worth while to give a whole chapter to disprove this statement. He brings the authority of Sandys, Norden, Egmont and Heyman, and Maillet, to bear against that of Le Bruyn. Sandys, in going up the Nile, often bought as many fish for sixpence as would satisfy twenty people. There is in fact no doubt on the subject. Harmer well observes, that fish might have been very plentiful in Egypt even if they had been scarce in the Nile. Fish were very abundant in the lakes and canals: they also abound in the Red Sea and on the shores of Lower Egypt; but we are inclined to believe that the ancient Egyptians did not eat fish derived directly from the sea.

22. The magicians of Egypt did so with their enchantments.'-It has been objected, How could the magicians turn water into blood, when all the water is said, in verse 19, to have been changed?' The answer is, that the Egyptians, by digging, found water unaffected by the plague, and on this water the magicians might operate.

24. The Egyptians digged round about the river for water to drink. A similar operation of digging for water, in a less likely situation than the banks of the Nile-that is, in the desert between Egypt and Palestine-is thus described by Dr. Richardson: On our arrival at Gatsallakh we stopt in a low, wind-swept valley, beside a precipitous sand-bank that towered above our heads to the height of 100 feet. Here, however, we were told there was water, though to our longing and inexperienced eyes every inch of surface was covered with dry sand, without the slightest indication of the fluid below. Our flasks were all drained, and we alighted, and laid ourselves down on the sand, wishing for the arrival of our camels to bring us a fresh supply. Meanwhile, as we were admiring the operations of the industrious beetle, rolling his ball over the smooth surface of the desert, the sheikh of the caravan began to clear away the arenaceous accumulation from a very unlikely spot, which, however, soon discovered signs of water beneath. He then proceeded to deepen the excavation by basketing out the sand, singing at the same time an appropriate Arab tune. They continued digging and singing for about ten minutes, when abundance of the wished-for fluid flowed amain. At the joyful sight, men, women, dogs, and asses, all crowded around, eager to dip their lips in the wave. We all drank of it, and, though it is muddy and brackish in the extreme, our first sentiment was that of universal approbation. "It is extremely good," flowed from every tongue after it had tasted the water. We tried it a second time, but the voice of applause stuck in our throats.' (Travels, vol. ii. p. 182-83.) This again leads us to mention that the well water of Egypt is detestable; a circumstance which no doubt greatly enhances the estimation in which the water of the Nile is held, as described in a former note.

CHAPTER VIII.

1 Frogs are sent. 8 Pharaoh sueth to Moses, 12 and Moses by prayer removeth them away. 16 The dust is turned into lice, which the magicians could not do. 20 The swarms of flies. 25 Pharaoh inclineth to let the people go, 32 but yet is hardened.

AND the LORD spake unto Moses, Go unto Pharaoh, and say unto him, Thus saith the LORD, Let my people go, that they may serve

me.

2 And if thou refuse to let them go, behold, I will smite all thy borders with frogs:

3 And the river shall bring forth frogs abundantly, which shall go up and come into thine house, and into thy bedchamber, and upon thy bed, and into the house of thy servants, and upon thy people, and into thine ovens, and into thy 'kneading-troughs:

4 And the frogs shall come up both on thee, and upon thy people, and upon all thy

servants.

5 And the LORD spake unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Stretch forth thine hand with thy rod over the streams, over the rivers, and over the ponds, and cause frogs to come up upon the land of Egypt.

6 And Aaron stretched out his hand over the waters of Egypt; and the frogs came up, and covered the land of Egypt.

7 And the magicians did so with their enchantments, and brought up frogs upon the land of Egypt.

8 Then Pharaoh called for Moses and Aaron, and said, Intreat the LORD, that he may take away the frogs from me, and from my people; and I will let the people go, that they may do sacrifice unto the LORD.

9 And Moses said unto Pharaoh, "Glory over me: 'when shall I intreat for thee, and for thy servants, and for thy people, 'to destroy the frogs from thee and thy houses, that they may remain in the river only?

10 And he said, "To morrow. And he said, Be it according to thy word: that thou mayest know that there is none like unto the LORD our God.

11 And the frogs shall depart from thee, and from thy houses, and from thy servants, and from thy people; they shall remain in the river only.

12 And Moses and Aaron went out from Pharaoh and Moses cried unto the LORD because of the frogs which he had brought against Pharaoh.

13 And the LORD did according to the

14 And they gathered them together upon heaps: and the land stank.

15 But when Pharaoh saw that there was respite, he hardened his heart, and hearkened not unto them; as the LORD had said.

16 And the LORD said unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Stretch out thy rod, and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice throughout all the land of Egypt.

17 And they did so; for Aaron stretched out his hand with his rod, and smote the dust of the earth, and it became lice in man, and in beast; all the dust of the land became lice throughout all the land of Egypt.

18 And the magicians did so with their enchantments to bring forth lice, but they could not: so there were lice upon man, and upon beast.

19 Then the magicians said unto Pharaoh, This is the finger of God: and Pharaoh's heart was hardened, and he hearkened not unto them; as the LORD had said.

20 T And the LORD said unto Moses, Rise up early in the morning, and stand before Pharaoh; lo, he cometh forth to the water; and say unto him, Thus saith the LORD, Let my people go, that they may serve

me.

21 Else, if thou wilt not let my people go, behold, I will send 'swarms of flies upon thee, and upon thy servants, and upon thy people, and into thy houses and the houses of the Egyptians shall be full of swarms of flies, and also the ground whereon they are.

22 And I will sever in that day the land of Goshen, in which my people dwell, that no swarms of flies shall be there; to the end thou mayest know that I am the LORD in the midst of the earth.

23 And I will put a division between my people and thy people: 'to morrow shall this sign be.

11

cor

24 And the LORD did so; and there came a grievous swarm of flies into the house of Pharaoh, and into his servants' houses, and into all the land of Egypt: the land was rupted by reason of the swarm of flies. 25 And Pharaoh called for Moses and for Aaron, and said, Go ye, sacrifice to your God in the land.

26 And Moses said, It is not meet so to do; for we shall sacrifice the abomination of 4 Or, against when. 5 Heb. to cut off. 8 Heb. a redemption.

11 Or, destroyed.