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We do not, however, wish to be understood as speaking here of that superficial philosophy of history which limits. itself to natural causes, and attempts to explain facts on psychological and diplomatic principles, and which, seeing but man in his works, never rises to a higher and final cause;1 but of a philosophy deeper and more scientific, which recognizes in the events of history the united work of both man and God, and ascribes an active part in the historical drama to Him "who hath mercy and teacheth and correcteth as a shepherd doth his flock."

St. Paul refers in clear and simple language to the intimate relation existing between things human and divine, in the following passage: "In Him we live and move, and have our being."

Only such a philosophy as this can be in complete harmony with the principles and teachings of Christianity, or give a clear, intelligible, and dignified idea of its history. It represents man to us, not as the sport of chance and fortune, or the victim of fate and destiny, such as we meet him in the gloomy and comfortless pages of Herodotus, Cæsar, Tacitus, and others among the ancients, but as a free agent, directed but not constrained by God, and working out, in willing obedience to this divine guidance, his appointed end.

The more clearly the nature and aim of the Church of Christ are understood, the more fully will we recognize in her growth among men a systematic development of conduct at once human and divine, which seems to point the way to the final fulfillment of God's purposes on mankind.* God himself," or some one inspired by Him, can alone give

The words of Cicero are apposite: "Et cum de eventu dicatur, ut causae explicentur omnes vel casus, vel sapientiae, vel temeritatis hominumque ipsorum non solum res gestae, sed etiam qui fama ac nomine excellant, de cujusque vita atque natura." Ibid. Ibid. Tacitus also says in Hist. I. 4: "Ut non modo casus eventusque rerum, qui plerumque fortuiti sunt, sed ratio etiam causaeque noscantur." See Staudenmaier, Genius of Revelation, Giessen, 1837, p. 55–113. 2 Ecclus. xviii. 13.

3 Acts xvii. 28.

4†Dieringer, System der göttlichen Thaten des Christenthums, 2 ed., Mentz,

1857.

5 Apoc. v. 3-5.

a clear and satisfactory solution of all the questions involved in the philosophy of church history.

This problem would be completely and satisfactorily solved were church history a clear and convincing record of a race of men, who, by a law of their being, increased in wisdom, knowledge, and virtue, as they grew in years.

If to these requirements be added a sense of responsibility, sympathy with the work, a clear knowledge of theology, and a style in keeping with the dignity of the subject, then has church history all the conditions of a science, and is justly entitled to the name.

§ 7. Impartiality of the Church Historian.

It was a saying among the ancients that the historian should have neither country nor religion; and among the moderns, it is affirmed that he should be entirely free from prejudice. Neither is possible; for no one can either entirely divest himself of his religion and patriotic feelings, or escape the deep influence of a church whose teachings he imbibed in early youth. And the men who boast of being exceptionally free from prejudice are precisely those who are most completely under its control.

Historical impartiality demands no such conditions. It only requires:

1. That the historian shall not knowingly and intentionally change facts which appear to tell against his religious convictions, but shall investigate them, narrate them as he finds them, and pass judgment upon them with prudence and moderation.1

2. That he shall frankly acknowledge and openly confess the possible shortcomings of his church, for silence here would be more damaging than beneficial to her cause.2

The religious belief of the historian, moreover, should be unequivocally professed and made so to pervade his whole

1Isaias v. 20.

2 Major erit confusio voluisse celare, cum celari nequeat. Bernard. Epist. 42 ad Henric. Archiep. Senon.

work, that it will give it the advantage of a definite character, so much more satisfactory and pleasing than what is vague and indistinct.

This should be especially prominent when there is question of heresies, because the Church in this case has clearly pointed out and rigorously defined the truth, and has consequently rejected and condemned every opinion contrary to her dogmatic definitions.

Finally, the historian should keep clear of the indifferentism of Greek and Roman schools of philosophy, which, having had neither a recognized authority nor an infallible guide, were obliged, while most violently opposed to each other, to acknowledge and recognize the equal authority and rights of all.

§ 8. Divisions of History according to Time

It is now generally admitted that the plan of writing history by divisions of years, centuries, and reigns is both inconvenient and defective. It seems preferable to select certain periods of so marked a character as to be easily distinguished both from those which precede and those which follow them. This division is both easy and natural. Each period includes some great movement in the Church, and the events belonging to it, which being easily grouped, give Nor does this interfere it a character peculiarly its own. with the steady march of historical narration; for each period is at once the effect of the preceding and condition of the following one, and this again the total result and full expression of all.

When events so influence a period as to essentially change its character, a new period is then entered upon; when, however, the change is less complete, but still sufficiently marked to give it prominence, such is called an epoch.

All church history may be divided into the three following periods:

I. The influence of the Church upon the government and civilization of the Greco-Roman people, to the end of the seventh century.

II. The Christian Church comes in contact with the German and Sclavonic nations, her influence is predominant, the union of Church and State, to the sixteenth century.

III. The separation of Church and State, the Western Schism brought on by Luther, down to our own day.

These periods are divided into the following epochs, and these again into parts:

FIRST PERIOD.

First Epoch: From the foundation of the Christian Church to the reign of Constantine the Great, and the edict of Milan.

Part First: The foundation and government of the Church of Christ and the Apostles.

Part Second: From the death of St. John the Evangelist to Constantine the Great; the propagation of Christianity; conflicts of the Church with pagans from without and Gnostics and Anti-trinitarians from within; her external growth and development an enduring proof of her Catholicity.

Second Epoch: From the death of Constantine the Great to the Second Council of Trullo (692); age of heresies; doctrinal developments of the Church with regard to the Holy Trinity, the person of Christ, and grace; the constitution of the Church, and her form of worship; the early Fathers and writers of the Church; monasticism; the complete victory of Christianity over the paganism of the Roman Empire; the Church threatened by Islamism.

SECOND PERIOD.1

First Epoch: From the establishment of the Christian Church among the Germans to Gregory VII. (1073); increasing harmony between Church and State.

1This important division suggested by Neander, is the one adopted by Hase in his Church History of the Germans, a treatise quite distinct from his Church History of the Greco-Roman Empire. Möhler insisists still more strongly upon this division (Works, Vol. II. 276-281). To present under the same head the church history of the Germans and the great doctrinal controversy among the Greeks, would prove a source of great confusion. It will be sufficient to mention, as occasion offers, the contemporary events of importance.

Part First: To the death of Charlemagne (814); victory of the Catholic Church over German paganism and Arianism; foundation and growth of the spiritual and temporal power of the head of the Roman Catholic Church.

Part Second: The Roman Catholic Church from the death of Charlemagne to Gregory VII. (1073); flourishing condition of the church in the Frankish Empire; her decline; efforts to prevent it; separation of the Greek from the Roman Catholic Church.

Second Epoch: From Gregory VII. to the first indication of the approaching Western Schism; full development of mediæval influences in the Church.

Part First: From Gregory VII. to the death of Boniface VIII. (1303); the flourishing period of the Middle Ages; the Popes and their influence throughout the world; the Crusades; chivalry; monastic orders; scholastism; mysticism; Gothic cathedrals; sects; repeated attempts to re-unite the Greek Church with the Roman.

Part Second: From the death of Boniface VIII. to the Western Schism; decline of the temporal power and spiritual authority of the Popes after their residence at Avignon (1305); simultaneous decline of religious life in the Church; revival of paganism; multiplication and threatening attitude of the sects; the councils of Pisa, Constance, Basle, Ferrara, Florence, and Lateran but partially realize their attempted reforms.

THIRD PERIOD.

First Epoch: From the beginning of the Western Schism by Luther, to the political recognition by the treaty of Westphalia (1648) of the various Protestant sects that had separated from the Church; political and religious wars; discussions between Catholics and Protestants on the hierarchy, grace, the sacraments, and Christian anthropology; true reformation of the Catholic Church at the Council of Trent.

Second Epoch: From the peace of Westphalia to modern times; recognition of Protestantism by the laws of the Empire; its development; a conflict ensues between the conservative principles of the Church and false political and scientific

VOL. I-2

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